COLERIDGE, (DAVID)HARTLEY COLEMANITE borate mineral, hydrated calcium borate (Ca2.B6O11 5H20), that was the principal source of borax (q.v.) until the 1930s. It typically occurs us colourless, brilliant crystals and masses in Tertiary sediments, where it has been derived from ulexite and borax. The chief localities are the Kramer district, Death Valley, and Daggett, Calif Colemanite is an important source of commercial borates and boric acid. For detailed physical properties, see borate minerals. evaporite mineralogy and composition 6 113 3d: table COLENSO, JOHN (b. Jan. 24, 1814. St. Austell, Cornwall–d. June 20, 1883, Durban, Natal, now in South Africa), controversial liberal Anglican bishop of Natal, He made numerous converts among, the Zulus, who caused him to abandon certain religious tenets and thus be subjected to trial for heresy Colenso became rector of Forncett St. Mary’s Church, Norfolk, in 1846 and in 1853 bishop of Natal, where he served until his death. A strict logician, he was led by questions asked by Zulu converts to doubt the historical accuracy of the Pentateuch, the first five books of the Old Testament. Arguing that the Pentateuch must have been a postexilic forgery rather than a faithful contemporary account of Jewish life, he also maintained that the numerical discrepancies found in Genesis warranted dismissal of the entire Bible, For this position, presented in his Pentateuch and Book of Joshuo Critically Examined (1862 79). for his opposition to the doctrine of eternal punishment for sinners, and for his toleration of polygamy among the Zulus, Colenso was. summoned in 1863 by his superior, Bishop Robert Gray of Capetown, to appear before him on a charge of heresy. Colenso was convicted the next year, but in 1865 he was acquitted on appeal by the judicial committee of the Anglican Church’s Privy Council in England, which held that because the crown was powerless to appoint a bishop in a colony possessing its own independent legislature, the royal courts could not uphold the legality of Gray’s authority. In 1866 Colenso right to his episcopal income was  his victo ries were purely technical, for royal supremacy was subsequently declare invalid in South Africa. Gray’s religious authority increased despite his loss of legal authority, and after the church in South Africa was recognized as autonomous, the English bishops deposed Colenso in 1869. Colenso remained at his post, beside the new bishop, ministering to a dwindling band of supporters. Considered by some critics as a scholar of limited ability for The Pentceuch, he also composed a grammar, a dictionary, and a NewTestament translation in Zulu. Anglican metropolitan authority issue 1:888n COLEOIDCAsubclass of mollusks including the cuttlefish, squid, octopus, and belemnoids (qq.v.). characteristics and classification 12:331bfossils, characters, and descendants 7:562e: illus. 561Jurassic shell forms and sizes 10:358fCOLEOPHORIDAE(mothfamily): see cast bearer.     COLEOPTERA4:828, the largest order of insects (at least 250,000 species have been described;, whose members include the beetle, weevil, borer, firefly, chafer, and curculio. Beetles can be found almost anywhere except the sous and range in size from among the largest insects to the smallest. The text article covers size tange and distribution of colcopterans, economic importance, ranges of colour and shape, characteristics of reproduction, life cycle, and form and function. An annotated classification concludes the article. REFERENCES in other text Articles aquatic breathing use of bubbles 15:753c; illus. characteristics and classification 9:62lc; cotton insect damage and control 7:273fdiscontinuous distribution of organisms 5:910b; illus evolutionary origin and history 9:619b; illus 618 fossil era of origin 7:565hsocial behaviour patterns 16:938hstream current adaptations 15:890dRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index: forcommon beetles: see anobiid; antlike flower tec bee; asparagus beetle; hark beetle: bark gnawing beetle: bess beetle: beetle: blister beetle, branch and twig borer: carrion beetle: checkered beetle: click beetle: Colorado potato beetle; darkling beetle: dermestid beetle; dung beetle; leather-winged beetle: firefly; flat bark beetle; flat grain beetle; flea beetle; flower chafer: fruitworm beetle: ground beetle; hairy fun gus beetle; bister beetle: Japanese beetle; June beetle: ladybitd beetle; leal’ beetle; lizard beetle; long-homed beetle; long-horned leaf beetle, mettalic wood-boring beetle; net winged beetle; oecemerid beetle: pleasing fungus hectic; potato beetle; powder post beetle diving beetle: rove ; sap beetle; seed beetles shining leaf chafer: silken fungus beetle: skin beetle; soldier beetle; spider beetle; stag beetle; tiger beetle; tortoise beetle; tumbling flower beetle; water scavenger beetle: whirligig beetlecommon weevils acorn and nut weevil; boll weevil; curcuiio; fungus weevil: pine weevil; primitive weevil: weevilsubfamilies of beetles: Dynastinae; Eumolpinae: Galeracinae; Melolonthinae EOLEOPTILEin grasses, the first leaf of an emerging seedling. auxin and growth patterns 17:673b: illus. 672grass embryo development 5: grass seed germination process 14:586hhormone synthesis in plants .8:1087bmonocot seed morphology, illus. 1 16:480 COLEORHIZA (COLEORRHIZA), in grasses, a layer of cells that surrounds and protects the from the seed. grass embryo develoment 5:662dgrass seed germination 14:586hseed morphology, illus. 1 15:430 COLEPEPER (CULPEPPER), JOHN COLEPEPER 1ST BARON (d; June 11, 1660), English statesman who was an influential counsellor of Charles I during the Civil War and of Charles II in exile. Elected member for Kent in the Long Parliament, he took the popular side, supporting the Earl of Strafford’s attainder and receiving an appointment to the parliamentary committee of defense in 1641. He separated, however, from the popular party on the. church question, opposing the proposals to abolish episcopacy and for religious union with the Scots. In 1642 he joined the King’s supporters, taking office as chancellor of the exchequer, but he disapproved of Charles’s attempted arrest of five members of the Commons. In the Oxford parliament he advised concessions to secure peace. He received a peerage in 1644, Colcpeper was seat with Edward Hyde (afterward earl of Clarendon) in charge of the Prince of Wales, after Charles’s final defeat in 1645, to the Scilly Isles and thence to France (1646). In 1648 he accompanied the Prince on his unsuccessful naval expedition and returned with him to The Hague. After Charles I’s execution he pressed upon Charles II the acceptance of the Scots’ proposals. The treaty between Oliver Cromwell and Cardinal Mazarin in 1654 compelled Colepeper to leave France for Flanders. At the Restoration he returned to England but lived only a few weeks. COLERAINEmunicipal borough of County Londonderry, Northern Ireland, near the mouth of the River Bonn. The main town on the east bunk radiates from a central square, The Diamond; but a suburb extends across the river. Modern Coleraine (Gaelic Cuil Rathaine, “ferry corner”) owes its foundation to the companies of the City of London who undertook the colonization of County Londonderry under the scheme for the Plantation of Ulster. A road and rail junction and the seat of the New. University of Ulster (1968), the town manufactures linen, textiles, shirts, and whiskey and has agricultural processing and light engineering industries. Its harbour accommodates small vessels. Pop. (1971 prelim.) 14,851. 5 5 º08’ N, 6º40’ Wmap, United Kingdom 18:866 COLERIDGE (1840), essay by John Stuart Mill. Mill’s impact on English radicalism 12: 198cCOLERIDGE, DERWENT19th-century British educational reformer. teacher training general subject support 18.5e COLERIDGE, (DAVID) HARTLEY (b. Sept. 19, 1796, Kingdown, Bristol–d, Jan. 6, 1849, Grasmere, Cumberland), poet whose wayward talent found expression in his skillful and sensitive sonnets. The eldest son of the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, he spent his childhood alarming and delighting his family and the Southeys and Wordsworths by his mental agility and the “exquisite wtldness” that caused his father and Wordsworth to address poems to him prophetic in their forebodings. He entered Oxford in 1815, and in 1819 gained an Oriel Fellowship but forfeited it after n year by uncontrolled drinking and lack of application. In 1320 he began literary work in London and contributed to the London Magazine, but again instability cut short a promising career. By 1833 Coleridge returned to the Lake District at Grasmere, where, with two short intervals of’ teaching at Sedbergh, he lived until his death. Both the defects and the qualities of Hartley Coleridge’s character are reflected in his writings. There are many brilliant beginnings, but few are sustained. His sonnets reveal acute                observationand the self-knowledge that caused him to describe himself as “a thriftless prodigal of smiles and tears.” One volume. Poems, was published in 1833; another appeared posthumously in 1851.COLERIDGE,SAMUEL TAYLOR4:837 (b. Oct. 21, 1772, Ottery St. Mary, Devonshire–d. July 25, 1834, Highgate, now part of London), author of the famous “Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” was a leading English Romantic poet and one of the most profound literary theorisis of his day. Abstract of text biography. Coleridge was educated at Christ’s Hospital, London, and Jesus College, Cambridge. He was deeply concerned with the revolutionary ideas current in the 1790s and joined with Southey in a short-lived pantisocratic scheme designed to build a better society. In 1795, at Southey’s urging, he married Sara Fricker, though he did rot really love her. In 1795 Coleridge met Wordsworth, and they collaborated on Lyrical Ballads (1798), the most important single collection of English Romantic verse. Coleridge’s best poetry dates from that period: “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” “Kubla Khan,” and “Christabel Provided with an annuity by Josiah and Thomas Wedgwood in 1798, Coleridge visited Germany on a trip that he claimed was the formative influence on his life. In his later years Coleridge was dejected and became addicted to opium. In Biographia Literaria (1817), however, he wrote the most significant work of the general literary criticism produced in the English Romantic period. In it he revealed to English readers the thought of the German philosophers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1824, which provided him with an annual income of £105 and gave him a sense that his works were appreciated. REFERENCES in other text articles: encyclopaedic knowledge classification 6:780gpassim to English literature of the 19th century 10: 1182fEnglish poetry revivification 6:l069epoetic theory 14: prosody and function in English poetry 15:74eRomantic revolt against Neoclassicism 10:1045ascience and natural philosophy 16:371hShakespearian criticism 16:6320

tragedy Classic and Romantic contrast 18 volte-face from curly liberalism 5:63hWordsworth’s poetic theory influences 19:930aCOLERIDGE, SARA (b. Dec. 22, 1802, Keswick, Cumberland–d. May 3, 1852, London), translator and author of children’s verse, known primarily as the editor of the works of her father, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. During her childhood, her father was seldom at home and his orother-in-law Robert Southey chiefly influenced Sara’s early years. She did not see her father from 1812 to 1822, when she visited him at Highgate with her mother. Thereafter his influence was strikingly manifest. In 1822 she translated, from the Latin, Martin Dobrizhoffer’s An Account of the Abipones, with which her father was delighted. In 1825 she followed it with a translation of the Memoirs of the Chevalier Bayard In 1829 she married her cousin, Henry Nelson Coleridge. For her children she wrote Pretty Lessons In Verse for Good Children (1834) and Phantasmion (1837), a fairy story with some delightful lyrics. When her husband died in 1843, she took up his unfinished task of editing Coleridge’s works and also made several contributions to Coleridgean studies, notably an “Essay on Rationalism,” appended to the 5th edition of Aids to Reflection (1843), and a supplement and exhaustive notes to the 2nd edition of Biographia Literaria (1847). Late in life she formed many literary friendships, a record of which is preserved in Memoir and Letters of Sara Coleridge (1873), by her daughter Edith            COLERIDGE-TAYLOR, (b. Aug. 15, 1875, London–d. Sept. 1, 1912, Croydon, Surrey), composer who enjoyed considerable acclaim in the years of the 20th century. His father, distressed by his inability to progress as a physician–through apparent racial prejudice–deserted his son and English wife and returned to his native West Africa. At the age of five Samuel began playing the violin and joined the choir of a Presbyterian church in Croydon, where H.A, Walters guided his progress and arranged his admittance to the Royal College of Music in 1890. While still a student he published some anthems, but his creative gifts were more apparent in various colourful instrumental works. In 1896 he became conductor of an amateur orchestra in Croydon and began teaching, guest-conducting, recital work, and judging at music festivals to support his wife and two children. He also continued to compose and was an early success at the Gloucester Festival–to which he was recommended by Edward Elgar–with an orchestral Ballade in A Minor (1898), which was followed by his outstanding achievement, the Longfellow trilogy for solo voices, chorus, and orchestra of Hiawatha’s Wedding Least (1898), The Death of Minnehaha (1899). and Hiawatha’s Departure (1900). in these and numerous other works, including incidental music, choral works, and a violin concerto (1911), influences from Dvorak, Tchaikovsky, and Grieg appear along with a spontaneity derived from appreciation of Negro folk music, in which Coleridge-Taylor was a pioneer. He was well received in the United States (1904, 1906, 1910). Romantic doctrine of imagination 10:1039dCOLERMERIK (Turkey): see Hakkari COLEROON RIVERin Tiruchchirappalli and Thanjavur districts, Tamil Nadu state, southern India, formed by the northern bifurcation of the Cauvery River at Srirangam. The river flows between South Arcot and Thanjavur districts for 36 mi (58 km) and empties through several mouths into the Bay of Bengal, 3 mi south of Porto Novo. The Coleroon is part of the Cauvery Delta, the most fertile and densely populated region of southern India, noted for its rice production. The town Chidambaram lies on its banks in Thanjavur district. 11°22’ N, 79º51’ COLET, JOHN (b. 1466-67, London–d. Sept. 16, 1519, Sheen, Surrey), theologian and founder of St. Paul’s School, London, who, as one of the chief Tudor Humanists, promoted Renaissance culture in England. After three years of travel and study in France and Italy, fie returned to England c. 1496 and was ordained sometime before 1499. He lectured at Oxford University, to which he invited Desiderius Erasmus, the brilliant Humanist of the northern Renaissance. In addition to Erasmus, Colet collaborated with and influenced such prime Humanists as St. Thomas More and Thomas Linacre, prototype of the scholar-physicians of the Renaissance. Colet was appointed dean of St. Paul’s Cathedral in 1504 and founded St. Paul’s School c. 1509. Colet’s devotion to Humanism was diversely expressed. His insistence that the classics be taught diffused a sounder knowledge of Greek and Latin and of ancient life and thought. He adopted as his philosophy the Neoplatonism of the 3rd-century philosopher Plotinus, founder of the Neoplatonist school; Marsilio Ficino, one of the leaders of Renaissance Platonism; and Dionysius the Areopagite. allegedly an early Christian convert regarded as the author of The Mystical Theology of the Celestial Hierarchies, on which Colet wrote a treatise. His contempt for contemporary ecclesiastics’ abuses was so intense that his denunciation of the sins of the clergy caused him to be suspected of heresy. Colet’s works, mainly unpublished until the 19th-century editions of J.H. Lupton (1867-76), include commentaries on Romans and Corinthians and treatises on the sacraments and the church. His statutes and a Latin grammar, both written for St. Paul’s School, are printed in Lupton’s Life of John Colet (1887). E.W. Hunt’s Dean Colet and His Theology appeared in 1956, followed by L. Miles’s John Colet and the Platonic Tradition (1961). Erasmus’ exegetic influence 6:952dliterature of the Renaissance 10:1138eRenaissance school organization 6: COLET, LOUISEnee REVOIL (b. Aug. 15, 1810, Aix-en-Provence, Fr.–d. March 9, 1876, Paris), French poet and novelist, as noted for her friendships with leading men of letters as for her own work. Daughter of a businessman, she married a musician, Hippolyte Colet, in 1834, and published her first poetry, “Fleurs du Midi.” in 1836. Her Paris salon became a meeting place for literary lights, notably Gustave Flaubert, with whom she had a stormy eight-year liaison, during which he composed his Letters addressed to Mme Colet under the guise of “The Muse.” Their estrangement was followed by her bitter novel Lui (1859; “Him”), which caused a sensation. Among her other intimates were the poets Alfred de Mussel and Alfred de Vigny and the philosopher Victor Cousin, who through his official connections helped her to gain prizes and a pension. Her other novels include La Jeunesse de Mirabeau (1841; “Mirabeau’s Youth”) and Les Coeurs brises (1843; “Broken Hearts”). Among her better known works in verse are Penserosa (1840); Ce qui est duns le coeur des femmes (1352; “In Women’s Hearts”); Ce qu’on reve en aimant (1854; “What One Dreams in Love”); and Le Poeme de la femme (“(b. Jan. 13, 1381, Corbie, Fr. –d. March 6, 1447, Ghent), abbess, reformer of the Poor Clares and founder of the Colettine Poor Clares. The daughter of a carpenter at the monastery of Corbie, she was orphaned at 17 and entered the third order of St. Francis, living in a hermitage given her bot of Corbie. In a vision, St. Francis directed Colette to restore the Poor Clares to the original severity of their rule, which she undertook to do, in 1406, after visiting Antipope Renediet XIII and receiving his backing. Despite initial opposition, her reform spread through Savoy, Burgundy, France, Flanders, and Spain, increasing notably after her death. Beatified in 1740 and canonized in 1807, herfeastdayisMarch6.COLETTE,(SIDONIE-GABRIELLE(B.JAN.28,1873.SAINT-SAUVEUR-EN-PUISAYE, BURGUNDY, FR. D. AUG. 3, 1954, PARIS), THE OUTSTANDING FRENCH WOMAN WRITER OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY, WHOSE NOVELS, LARGELY CONCERNED WITH THE PLEASURES AND PAINS OF LOVE, ARE REMARKABLE FOR THEIR EXACT SENSORY EVOCATION OF SOUNDS, SMELLS, TASTES, TEXTURES, AND COLOURS. REARED IN A VILLAGE IN BURGUNDY, WHERE A KIND AND WISE MOTHER AWAKENED HER TO THE WONDERS OF EVERYTHING THAT “GERMINATES, BLOSSOMS OR FLIES,” SHE ACCEPTED THE WORLD AS IT WAS AND WROTE OF LOVE AND NATURE WITH A MIXTURE OF INNOCENCE AND GUILE AND AN ACUTE OBSERVATION THAT ENDEARED HER TO FIVE DECADES OF LEADERS, WHO, FORGETTING THE SCANDALS OF HER LIFE, EVENTUALLY MADE HER A MEMBER OF THE BELGIAN ROYAL ACADEMY (1935), THE FRENCH ACADEMIC GONCOURT (1945), AND A GRAND OFFICER OF THE LEGION D’HONNEUR–HONOURS TO WHICH WOMEN RARELY ACCEDE AT 20, COLETTE MARRIED A WOULD-BE WRITER, HENRI GAUTHIER-VILIARS, WHO INTRODUCED HER TO THE TROUBLED WATERS OF THE PARISIAN DEMIMONDE. HE DISCOVERED HER TALENT FOR WRITING AND PUBLISHED THE FOUR “CLAUDINE” NOVELS (1900-03), REMINISCENCES OF AN UNINHIBITED YOUNG HEROINE, UNDER HIS PEN NAME. WILLY. TURNING FROM THE SEMI-AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL ADVENTURES OF A LIBERTINE INGENUE, COLETTE WROTE SENSITIVELY OF ANIMALS, WITH WHOM SHE MAINTAINED A MISCHIEVOUS ALLIANCE AGAINST THE DISAPPOINTING WORLD OF MEN. AT THE SAME TIME HER SENSES WERE ENLIVENED BY AN ALMOST ANIMISTIC AFFECTION FOR PLANT LIFE. After her divorce in 1906, she became a music-hall performer. During these vagrant years, her attempts to achieve an independent womanhood inspired La Vagabonde (1910) and L’Envers du music-hall (1913). In 1912, she married Henry de Jouvenel. editor in chief of the paper Le Matin, to which she contributed theatre chronicles and short stories. Their daughter (born 1913) is the Bel-Gazou of the delightful animal story La Paix chez les betes (1916). All these works belong to what Colette called her years of apprenticeship (Mes Apprentissages, 1936). After 1920 came the decade of her masterpieces. A first group revolves around slightly depraved youth of post-World War I, such as the tainted hero of Cheri (1920) and La Fin de Cheri (1926), dealing with a liaison between a young man (Cheri) and an older woman; and the adolescents of Le Ble en herbe (1923), which concerns a tender and acid initiation to love. In a second group, she looked back to the countryside of her enchanted childhood and away from the pleasures and disillusions of shallow love affairs, La Maison de Claudine (1922) and Sido (1930) are the poetic meditations of these years. After 1930 she enjoyed 25 productive and serene years. In 1935 she married Maurice Goudcket, a writer. The marriage brought much happiness, interrupted, however, by her husband’s imprisonment by the Gestapo in World War II. Goudcket left his memoirs on their life together (Pres de Colette, 1955). Colette’s later works were diverse in theme: La Chatte (1933) and Duo (1934) are treatments of jealousy; Gigi (1944) is about a girl reared by two elderly sisters to become a courtesan; and L’Etoile vesper (1947) and Le Fanal bleu (1949) are reminiscences. A delicate and humorous realist, she was the annalist of female existence, accepting with uncritical realism the traditional female roles of the husband hunter or the discarded, aging, or declasse mistress. Her format was the novella; her style, a blend of the sophisticated and the natural, laced with all the subtle cadences of sensuous pleasures and intuitive acumen. From 1949 she was increasingly crippled by arthritis. She ended her days, a legendary figure, surrounded by her beloved cats, confined to her beautiful Palais-Royal apartment overlooking Paris. Ravel opera collaboration COLETTINE POOR CLARES SEE FRANCISCAN NUNS. COLEUSan Old World tropical plant genus of 150 species, of the mint family (Lamiaceae), order Lamiales, best known for members with colourful foliage. Varieties of C. blumei, from Java, are well-known house and garden plants up to 45 centimetres (18 inches) tall. They have square stems and two-lipped flowers, which in C. blumei are small, blue, and in spikes. Rush coleus (C. thrysoideus). from Central Africa, reaches one metre (about three feet) and produces seven-centimetre (about three-inch) sprays of bright blue flowers.COLFAX, SCHUYLER(b. Match 23, 1823. New York City–d. Jan. 13, 1885, Mankato, Minn.), Republican vice president of the United States (1869 73) under Pres. Ulysses S. Grant.After moving to Indiana in his youth, Colfax combined his interest in journalism and politics by founding the St. Joseph Valley Register (1845), which became one of the most influential papers in the state during his 18 years of editorship. In the fluctuating political situation preceding the U.S. Civil War (1861 65), he shifted from the Whig Party to the Know- Nothings to the Republicans, who elected him to Congress in 1854. He served from 1855 to 1869, the last six years as the popular Speaker of the House of Representatives. During Reconstruction (1865-77), Colfax was a leader of the Radical Republicans who favoured extending suffrage to Negro freedmen and disenfranchising those who had served prominently in the Confederacy. Fleeted to the vice, presidency in 1868, he failed to win renomination in 1872 because a congressional investigation had implicated him– along with other politicians–in corrupt transactions with the Credit Mobilier of America, It was also revealed that in 1868 he had accepted, as a campaign contribution, a gift of $4.000 from a contractor who had supplied the government with envelopes while Colfax was chairman of the Committee on Post Offices and Post Roads in Congress. At the end of his term, Colfax returned to private life under a cloud but managed to make a living by delivering popular lectures. A biography is Willard H. Smith’s, SCHUYLER Colfax: The Changing Fortunes of a Political Idol (1952). COLIIndian short jacket, style origin and present use 5:1038d; illus. 1039                                                                            COLIBRIsee hummingbird. COLICterm in medicine for any paroxysmal pain but usually restricted to a pain produced by the contraction of the muscular walls of any hollow organ, such as the- renal pelvis or the biliary tract. of which the aperture has become more or less blocked, temporarily or otherwise. In infants, usually those who are bottle-fed, intestinal colic is common and is shown by the drawing up of the infant’s legs, restlessness, and continuous crying. Colic may accompany any form of enteritis or an intestinal malignant growth, as well as certain forms of influenza. Colic caused by spastic contractions of the bowel is a common symptom of lead poisoning. Treatment for colic is aimed at relief of symptoms and often includes the administration of a muscle relaxant such as atropine and occasionally morphine for severe pain. COLIFORM SEE CUBAETERIA.COLIGNY, GASPARD II DE, SEIGNEUR DE CHATIILON (b. Feb. 16, 1519, Chatillon-sur-Loing, Fr.–d. Aug. 24, 1572, Paris), admiral of France and leader of the Huguenots during the early years of the Wars of Religion (1562- 98), whose growing influence over King Charles IX of France in 1572 so strongly- threatened the former regent, Catherine de Medicis, that she precipitated the massacre of Protestants on St. Bartholomew’s Day.Coligny was the son of Gaspard I de Coligny, the marshal of Chatillon, and Louise de Montmorency, sister of Anne de Montmorency. constable of France. His brother, Odet, cardinal de Chatillon, and Francois, seigneur d’Andelot, also had important roles in the first period of the wars. At 22 Coligny came to court and became friendly with Francois de Lorraine, 2nd duc de Guise. He served in the Italian campaign in 1544 and later was appointed colonel general of the infantry, in illicit capacity he drew up ordinances, promuigated in 1551, designed to regulate the conduct of soldiers and to protect civilian populations from their outrages, Made admiral of France in 1552, he later fought against the Spanish and was imprisoned by them for two years. Although in 1555 Coligny had favoured a plan for sending Huguenots to Brazil to establish a colony in safety, he did not officially announce his support for the Reformation until 1560. At that time, protected by his uncle Montmorency, he became the protector of his co-religionists in France. He demanded religious toleration, gaining the support of the chancellor, Michel de L’Hospital, and, for a time, of Catherine de Medicis but arousing the enmity of the powerful Guise family. Coligny’s conversion was more political than religious. Although attracted to Calvinist philosophy, he saw the reformed religion as a system for the maintenance of order, discipline, and justice. When the civil wars began in 1562, Coligny hesitantly joined the light. He was not one of the best generals; he simply did not like war. Upon the death of the first Prince de Conde in 1569, Coligny became the sole leader of the Huguenots. Although severely defeated at Moncontour (October 1569), he rallied an army in southern France and advanced as far as the upper Seine valley, forcing the Peace of Saint-Germain (August 1570), which was very advantageous to the Huguenot cause. Returning to the court in 1571, Coligny rose rapidly in favour with Charles IX and began to exert considerable influence over the King’s policies. He proposed that a combined army of French Catholics and Huguenots fight against the Spanish in the Netherlands. Driving the Spanish from Flanders was only a secondary objective: by having the Huguenots serve France abroad successfully, Coligny hoped to secure their position within the realm. At the same time he hoped to win favour with the King for himself. Catherine and Guise did not want war with Spain, their ally, and feared for their own influence over the King. At the instigation of Catherine an unsuccessful assassination attempt was made against Coligny on Aug. 22, 1572, in Paris. Charles visited him, promising a full investigation. Catherine, knowing that she would be discovered, played on her son’s fears and instabilities by telling him that the Huguenots were plotting to retaliate against him. In an outburst of rage, Charles ordered the deaths of the Huguenot leaders, including Coligny, and the massacre of St. Bartholomew’s Day began. At dawn on the 24th, mercenaries of Henri de Guise attacked Coligny at his house, struck blow after blow, and finally threw him, still living, from the window; his head was then cut off by one of Guise’s henchmen. diplomatic and military goats 6:1089bFrench Reformation religious conflict 15:553gGuise political opposition 8:477fHuguenots’ challenge to government 3:674dWars of Religion Protestant leadership 7:629hpassim to 630b COLIJN, HENDRIKUS (b. June 22, 1869, Haarlemmermeer, Neth.–d. Sept. 16/18, 1944, Ilmenau, now in East Germany), Dutch statesman and leader of the Anti-Revolutionary Party who as prime minister (1933-39) gained widespread popular support through his conservative anti-depression economic policies. A soldier (1895-1904) in the colonial army during the Achincse War in northern Sumatra, Colijn later served there as a civil administrator, organizing government services and rubber plantations. He entered the Dutch Parliament in 1909 as a member for the orthodox Calvinist Anti-Revolutionary Party and became war minister (1911-13). He initiated a military development program and strengthened the coastal defenses by commissioning a new fortress at Vlissingen (Flushing) in 1911. After serving as director (1914-22) of the company that later became Royal Dutch Petroleum Company (Shell), he succeeded Abraham Kuyper in 1922 as leader of the Anti-Revolutionary Party and editor of its newspaper, De Standaard. As finance minister (1923-25) under Charles-Joseph-Marie Ruys de Beerenbrouck, Colijn generally curtailed government expenditures but advocated expansion of the navv for use in Indonesia. After a brief ministry in 1925-26, he became prime minister again in 1933 and pursued a policy of “adaptation” (reducing the general standard of living) and of postponing devaluation of the currency. He was forced to resign in July 1939 after dropping the Catholic bloc from his coalition cabinet, Having remained in The Netherlands as editor of De Standaard after the German occupation in 1940, he was arrested in July 1941 and died in a concentration camp three years later.COLIMAsmall Pacific coast state, west central Mexico, bounded by the Pacific Ocean (south and west) and by the suites of Jalisco (northwest and north) and Michoacan (east). Its area of 2,106sq mi (5,455 sq km) includes the Revil-lagigedo Islands (q.v.), 500 mi (800 km) off the coast. Most of Colima is within the narrow coastal plain, beyond which it rises toward the northeast into the volcanic Sierra Madre foothills. It is drained by the Armeria and Coahuayana rivers, which are used largely for irrigation. The soil is generally fertile and productive, but lack of transportation has impeded development. The climate is hot and humid, becoming drier and more healthful on the higher mountain slopes. Livestock raising is an important industry in the more elevated regions. Agriculture is the principal occupation, the most important crops being sugarcane, rice, corn (maize), palm oil, and mountain- grown coffee (reputedly the best in Mexico). Mineral deposits include iron, copper, and lead. Salt is produced at Cuyutlan, on the coast. A railroad and a highway traverse the state, leading from Guadulajara and Mexico City through Colima (q. v.), the state capital, to the port city of Manzanillo, a Pacific coast resort offering bathing beaches and fishing. Pop. (1976 est.) 317, area and population table and map 12:71 COLIMAcapital, Colima state, west central Mexico. It is on the Rio Colima in the Sierra Madre foothills, 1,548ft (472 m) above sea level. Although it was founded in 1522, Colima has played a minor role in Mexican history because of its inaccessibility. It is now connected by rail and paved highway to the port of Manzanillo, as well as to interior points. Industry centres upon the processing of local agricultural products (including cotton, rice, and corn [maize]), together with salt refining, alcohol distilling, and the manufacture of shoes and leather goods. It is the site of Colima University, 1867; reorganized 1962. Pop. (1976 est.) 70,219. 19°14’ N. 103°43’ map, Mexico 12:68 COLIN CLOUTS COME HOME AGAINE (1595), poem by Edmund Spenser. Faerie Queene presentation to Elizabeth 17:496a COLINES, SIMON (1480–1546), French printer who pioneered the use of italic types in France. He worked as a partner of Henri Estienne, the founder of an important printing house in Paris. Estienne died in 1520, and Co- lines married his widow and was in charge of the press until Estienne’s son Robert I entered the business in 1526, by which lime Colines had set up his own shop nearby. In 1 528 he began to use italic type. Colines published many Greek and Latin classics. Although he was not a scholar himself, he extended the range of the Estienne firm’s learned and scientific works to include the natural sciences, cosmology, and astrology. He is credited with the design of italic and Greek fonts and of a roman face for St. Augustine’s Sylvius (1531), from which the Garamond types were derived. In 1525 he published the notable Grandes Heures de Simon de Colines, with decorations by Geoffroy Tory French role in typography evolution 18:815hCOLIN MUSET (fl. 13th century), French trouvere, a professional vielle pluyer and jongleur, who performed in chateaus of the Upper Maine Valley between Langres and Joinville. Colin was a native of Lorraine; his poetry, skillfully written, praised the pleasures of wine and good living. He also wrote and sometimes parodied courtly poetry. He has had a number of admirers, including the 20th-century Irish dramatist J.M. Synge.medieval lyric poets 10:1103e COLINUS VIRGINIANUS (BIRD): SEE QUAIL. COLISTIN antimicrobial drug that acts by disrupting the cell walls of bacteria, allowing the cell contents to escape.detergent action on cell membrane 1:989h COLITIS inflammation of the large intestine, especially of its mucous membranes. Mucous or spastic colitis is commonly “nervous” or psychosomatic in origin and is usually a temporary upset rather than chronic inflammation; this disorder may account for 50 percent of all digestive tract illnesses. Symptoms are abdominal pain, diarrhea (sometimes alternating with constipation), and passage of excessive mucus secreted by the membranes. In ulcerative colitis, patches of tiny holes (ulcers) develop in the inflamed membranes, and there is diarrhea, with blood and pus. The condition tends to become chronic, with sustained fever and with weight loss; complications and death may result. Specific causes, such as amebic or bacillary dysentery, are rarer than unknown or multiple causes, but there is probably a strong psychosomatic component. Treatment may include surgical removal of the diseased colon or, in less severe cases, psychotherapy. Major ref. 5:801g COLIUS (genus of bird): see coly COLLA Aymaran-speaking Andean people of the Lake Titicaca region of South America, prominent in the 15th century. They were defeated by the neighbouring  Lupaca (q.v.) early in the century, conquered by the Chanca, c. 1445, and subdued by the Inca in the 1470s. pre Columbian power struggle 1:848f COLLAGE (French: “pasting”), artistic technique of applying “found” materials, such as bits of newspaper, fabric, wallpaper, etc., to a panel or canvas in combination with paintingIn the 19th century, papiers colics were created from papers cut out and put together to form decorativc compositions. Around 1912-13 Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque extended this technique, combining fragments of paper, wood, linoleum, and newspapers with oil paint on canvas. The development of the collage by Picasso and Braque contributed largely to the transition from Analytical to Synthetic Cubism (see Cubism). The term collage was first used to refer to works in which this technique was employed by Dada and Surrealist artists, especially Jean Arp and Max Ernst. These collages were composed of juxtaposed images the connotative values of which were as important as their visual characteristics, and artists and viewers delighted in trying to rationalize the association of elements. Kurt Schwitters’ collages utilized pieces of string, rags, wood, wire, nails, and papers. Henri Matisse’s imaginative papiers decoupes, the works of his last years, were an adaptation of the collage technique. In the 1960s, collage was employed as a major form of Pop art. The collages, as well as assemblages (three-dimensional compositions), environments, and happenings in the 1960s, would seem to indicate an increased reliance upon a multimedia synthesis of art. See also photomontage. Major ref. 19: Braque’s first papier colle 3:119bCubist beginning and use in photography 14:321ghubby description and history 8:974gMatisse technique adaptation 11:701emixed media painting 13:880g; illus., 13:PaintingPicasso’s style of expression 14:       any of a class of proteins that arc components of whitish, rather inelastic fibres of great tensile strength present in tendon and ligament and in the connective tissue layer of the skin–dermis–and in dentin and cartilage. Collagenous fibres occur in bundles up to several hundred microns wide, and the individual fibres can be separated into fine fibrils; the fibrils, furthermore, consist of even finer filaments with a periodic banded structure. Collagen is especially rich in the amino acid glycine, and it is the only protein known to contain a substantial proportion of hydroxyproline. When placed in boiling water, collagen dissolves and forms gelatin. It is not known exactly how collagen forms in the body, but it is assumed to be produced outside the cells from a precursor, tropocollagen, synthesized by fibroblasts (q.v), spindle-shaped cells of connective tissue that are found stretched along bundles of collagenous fibrils. Major ref. 15:90b; adhesives from protein hydrolysis 1: aging effects on form 1: blood clotting due to platelet activity 2:1120a bone matrix composition 3: composition and function 9:667fconnective tissue components 5:13d; illus dermal skin composition 16:848ddisease occurrence and healing 5:846ddisease symptoms and treatment 5:17dheart lesion source 3:890dinvertebrate skeletal systems 16:820ajoints’ structural components 10:253bleather and hide fibre structure variation 10:761cmeat tissue texture 11:746horganic fraction of bone 3:23gtissue culturetechnology18:439gCOLLAGENASE(biochemistry):seeproteolyticenzymes,pancreaticCOLLAGENDISEASEterm sometimes applied to any disease of the connective tissue (such as bone, cartilage, tendon, and ligament), because such tissue contains a protein called collagen. There is little evidence, however, of abnormality of the collagen in such diseases. Major ref. 10:261bheart disease causation 3:892f term definition change 5:l7dCOLLAPSE BRECCIA sedimentary rock consisting of large angular fragments in a finer matrix, formed by the collapse of a cavern, lava tube, or other rock mass. formation by mineral alteration 4:lll2e COLLARBONE (anatomy): see clavicle. COLLAR CELL(biology): see choanocyte. COLLARDoriginally COLEWORT (Brassica oleracea variety acephala), a headless form of cabbage (q.v.) of the mustard family (Brassieuceae). It bears the same botanical name as kale, from which it differs only in leaf characters; collard leaves are much broader, arc not frilled, and resemble the roselte leaves of head cabbage. The main stem reaches a height of 60 120 centimetres (24-48 inches) with a rosette of leaves at the top, Lower leaves commonly are harvested progressively; the entire young rosette is sometimes harvested. The plant is a source of nutritionally important minerals and of vitamins A and C. It is widely adapted, easily grown, and quite commonly raised as a source of winter greens in the southern U.S.COLLARED HEMIPODE (bird): see plain wanderer.                COLLARED LIZARDany of several species of the genus Crotaphytus, belonging to the lizard family Iguanidae (suborder Sauria). The Eastern collared lizard, C. collaris collarls, having black rings around its neck, ranges in length up to 30 centimetres (12 inches), including a long slender tail, and it can run on its hind legs. The coloration of the collared lizards changes depending on temperature and light. bipedal locomotion style 15:731c COLLATERALin banking and in law, the security that a borrower gives as a pledge to guarantee the repayment of his loan. If the borrower defaults, the lender has the right to sell the collateral and retain the amount due on the debt. commercial law and credit financing 4:993dcommercial paper and business finance 7:299h COLLATERAL KINSHIPrelationship between persons belonging to the same ancestral slock but not in the same direct line of descent. See also descent; lineage. consanguinity degree applications 5:3lgkinship social and genetic structures 10:478c a stage of textual critic ism in which the originality of a text, or the condition or authenticity of a particular copy of it, is determined by comparing different manuscripts or editions of the text. textual criticism methodology 18:190gTroilus and Cressida analysis 2:980e COLLECTING TUBULEsee renal collecting tubule. COLLECTION OF RITUALS (ancient Chinese literature): see Li chi.COLLECTIVE BARGAINING process of negotiation between representatives of workers and management to determine the conditions of employment. The power of each party in the bargaining process depends on its ability to convince the other of the reasonableness of its demands and its readiness to impose sanctions if its demands are not met (strikes by labour and lockouts by management are the primary examples of such sanctions). The collectively determined agreement may cover not only wages but hiring practices, layoffs, promotions, working conditions and hours, worker discipline, and benefit programs. Collective bargaining existed as early as the end of the 18th century in England; its development on the European continent and in the United States occurred later. Collective agreements are probably most significant in the United States and the United Kingdom and least significant in developing countries with large pools of surplus labour. The degree of centralization in the bargaining proccss and the functions performed by collective agreements vary. Contract negotiation may occur at the national, regional, or local level, depending on the structure of industry within a country. National agreements, which are more frequent in smaller countries, usually settle general matters, leaving more detailed issues for local consideration. Collective agreements may set actual wage rates or may be limited to minimum wage rates. In West Germany, for example, considerable differentials between the contract wage rate and the actual prevailing rates are considered quite normal. Collective agreements are not legally binding in all countries; in England, for example, their application depends on the goodwill of the signatories. In some countries, including West Germany, France, and Australia, the terms of negotiated settlements may be extended by the government to apply to all firms in an industry. Similar results arc sometimes accomplished informally in the United States under the tradition of allowing certain bargaining agreements to set the pattern for other settlements in an industry. Major ref. 10:565aarbitration in labour disputes 1:1076cindustrial security emphasis importance 16:453flegal labour use in mass society 10:570dmanagement-union conflict resolution 9:510e New Deal worker protection legislation 15;1139e trade unionism and labour reform 18:563g wage-increase effects on economy 7:327b COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOUR  4:842, a sociological concept denoting the ways in which people behave together in crowds, panics, fads, fashions, crazes, publics, cults, followings, reform and revolutionary movements, and other similar groupings. Common sociological usage limits the term to groups that are large, unorganized, and ephemeral. The term was coined by the early-20th-century sociologist Robert E. Park..The text article covers the elementary aspects and major forms of collectivc behaviour; theories of collective behaviour; and the effects and control of collective behaviour. REFERENCES in other text articles: covenant as unifying social force 5:226dindividual morality and social control 10:715d industrial yield affected by worker relations 9:495g passim to mass society theories and evaluation 11:600f passim to 603hnonviolent movement dynamics 13:851bpenology and inmate social structure 14:1101hpolice crowd and riot control procedure 14:669eprimary groups in military life 2:13csocial group research development 16:961c social movements and theory of human behaviour 16: social systems study development 16:989f sociological emphasis on human behaviour 16: worker relations in cross-cultural comparison 9:499g youth social and economic behaviour 19:1095b    collective farm, type of socialized farm introduced in the U.S.S.R. in the 1930s, in which most of the land is worked collectively, though members retain small household plots for their own use Algerian example 1:564fbuilding design and organization 7:175e farm management methods 7: Marxian Socialist land policy 17:317eSoviet economic planning enforcements 6:257g COLLECTIVE MODELdescription of atomic nuclei that incorporates aspects of both the shell model and the liquid-drop model to explain certain magnetic and electric properties that neither of the two separately can explain. Whereas in the shell model nuclear structure and behaviour are explained on the basis of unpaired nucleons (protons and neutrons) beyond the passive nuclear core composed of closed shells of paired protons and paired neutrons, and whereas in the liquid-drop model nuclear structure and behaviour are explained on the basis of all the nucleons contributing statistically (much as the molecules of a spherical drop of water contribute to the overall energy and surface tension), in the collective model high-energy states of the nucleus and certain magnetic and electric properties (magnetic and quadrupole moments) can be explained by the joint motion of the unpaired nucleons outside the closed shells and the combined motion of the paired nucleons in the core. Roughly, the nuclear core may be thought of as a liquid drop on whose surface circulates a stable tidal bulge directed toward the rotating unpaired nucleons outside the bulge. The tide of protons (positively charged particles) constitutes a current that in turn contributes to the magnetic properties of the nucleus, and the greater deformation of the nucleus as the number of unpaired nuclcons increase accounts nicely for the measured electric quadrupole moment (which may be considered as an index of nuclear shape or a measure of how much the distribution of electric charge in space departs from spherical symmetry). nuclear rotational deformation 13:341dshell liquid drop synthesis 15:443aCOLLECTIVE SECURITY system by which states have attempted to prevent or stop wars. Under a collective security arrangement, an aggressor against any one state is considered an aggressor against all other states, which act together to repel the aggressor. Collective security arrangements have always been conceived as being global in scope; this is in fact a defining characteristic, distinguishing them from regional alliances such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Both the League of Nations and the United Nations were founded on the principle of collective security Neither the League nor the United Nations were able to operate the principle successfully to prevent aggression because of the conflicts of interest among states, especially among the major powers. The existence of such conflicts has in fact been recognized in the institutionalized arrangements of the two world bodies themselves: under the Covenant of the League of Nations the response to aggression was left to the member states to decide (article 16, paragraph 3, as amended by interpretive resolutions adopted in 1921); and under the UN Charter any permanent member of the Security Council may veto collective action (article 27, paragraph 3). European interwar instability 19:971dinternational agreements and mutual interest 9:732fwarfare control approaches 19:547gWellington and the congress system 19:756c COLLECTIVE UNCONSCIOUS or racial unconscious, term introduced by psychiatrist Carl Jung to represent a form of the unconscious (that part of the mind containing memories and impulses of which the individual is not aware) common to mankind as a whole and originating in the inherited structure of the brain. It is distinct from the personal unconscious. which arises from the experience of the individual. According to Jung, the collective unconscious contains archetypes, or universal primordial images and ideas biological basis of personality 14.116gJungian thesis 15:146gJung’s study and identification 10:335hlibido, archetype, and religion 15:596gliterary symbolism origins 10:1044fmythology as symbolization 12:796g psychosis and abnormal resurgence of primitive tendencies 15: religious and artistic functions 15:621g COLLECTIVISMany of several types of social organization in which the individual is seen us being subordinate to a social collectivity such as a state, a nation, a race, or a social class. Collectivism may be contrasted with individualism (q.v.), in which the rights and interests of the individual are emphasized. The earliest modern, influential expression of colicctivist ideas is in the French writer Jean- Jacques Rousseau’s Du contrat social, of 1762 (see social contract), in which it is argued that the individual finds his true being and freedom only in submission to the “general will” of the community. In the early 19th century, the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel argued that the individual realizes his true being and freedom only in unqualified submission to the laws and institutions of the nation-state, which to Hegel was the highest embodiment of social morality. The German revolutionary thinker Karl Marx later provided the most succinct statement of the collectivist view of the primacy of social interaction in the preface to his Zur kritik der politischen Okonomie: “it is not men’s consciousness,” he wrote, “which determines their being, but their social being which determines their consciousness.” Collectivism has found varying degrees of expression in the 20th century in Socialism, Communism, and Fascism. The least collectivistic is social democracy, which seeks to reduce the inequities of unrestrained capitalism by regulation, redistribution of income, and varying degrees of planning and public ownership. In Communist systems collectivism is carried to its furthest extreme, with a minimum of private ownership and a totally planned economy. The coliectivist ideal under Communism is expressed in the motto that the individual will contribute to production “according to his ability” and be rewarded, in material terms, “according Lo his needs.” anarchist theoretical development 1 809cmental health and welfare-oriented societies 11:913bproperty ownership and cooperatives 15:50c COLLECTIVIZATIONinSoviet agriculture, process used by the Soviet government, most intensively between 1929 and 1933, to force the peasantry to give up then small individual farms and jrin large collective farms (kolkhozy). The process was ultimately undertaken in conjunction with the campaign to industrialize the U.S.S.R. rapidly. But before the drive began, long and bitter debates over the nature and pace of collectivization went on among the Soviet leaders (especially between Stalin and Trotsky, 1925-27, and between Stalin and Nikolay Bukharin, 1927-29). Some Soviet leaders considered collective farms a Socialist form of land tenure and therefore desirable; but they advocated a gradual transition to them in order to avoid disrupting a prosperous agricultural economy that would stimulate industrial growth. Other leaders favoured rapid industrialization and, consequently, wanted immediate, forced collectivization; they argued that the large kolkhozy could not only use heavy machinery more efficiently and produce larger crops than could numerous small, individual farms but that they could be controlled more effectively by the state. As a result, they could be forced to sell a large proportion of their output to the state at low government prices, thereby enabling the state to acquire the capital necessary for the development of heavy industry. A decision was made by the 15th Congress of the Communist Party (December 1927) to undertake collectivization at a gradual pace, allowing the peasantry to join kolkhozy voluntarily. But in November 1928 the Central Committee, (and in April 1929 the 16th Party Conference) approved plans that increased the goals find called for 20 percent of the nations farmland to be collectivized by 1933. Between October 1929 and January 1930 the proportion of peasant households belonging to kolkhozy rose from about 4 percent to 21 percent, although the government’s main efforts in the countryside were concentrated on extracting grain from and reducing the economic power of the kulaks (rich peasants). Intensive collectivization began during the winter of 1929-30. Stalin called upon the party to “liquidate the kulaks as a class” (Dec. 27, 1929), and the Central Committee resolved that an “enormous majority” of the peasant households should be collectivized by 1933. Harsh measures–including land confiscations, arrests, and deportations to prison camps–were inflicted upon all peasants who resisted col colletivization, not only on the kulaks. By March 1930 over one-half of the peasantry (a larger proportion in the agriculturally rich southwestern region of Russia) had been forced to join collective farms. But the peasants objected violently to abandoning their private farms. In many cases, before joining the kolkhozy they slaughtered their livestock and destroyed their equipment. The losses, as well as the animosity toward the Soviet regime, became so great that Stalin decided to slow down the collectivization process. On March 2, 1930, he published an article, “Dizzy from Success,” in which he criticized local officials for being overzealous in their duties. Immediately, many peasants left the kolkhozy. In March 1930 approximately 58 percent of the peasant households had been enrolled in kolkhozy; by June only about 24 percent remained. In the southwestern “black earth” region the figure dropped from 82 percent in March to 18 percent in May In the fall of 1930 the drive was renewed at a slower pace, but with equal determination. The application of various administrative pressures–including threats of punitive measures as well as their actual administration–resulted in the recollectivization of One-half of the peasants by 1931. By 1936 the government had collectivized almost all the peasantry. But in the process millions of the most successful peasants (i.e., the kulaks) had been deported to prison camps and removed from productive activity in agriculture. Furthermore, the absence of heavy agricultural machinery and of the horses and cattle that the peasants had killed seriously handicapped the new collective farms. Output fell, but the government nevertheless extracted the large amounts of agricultural products it needed to acquire the capital for industrial investment; this caused a major famine in the countryside (1932-33) and the deaths of millions of peasants. Despite these great costs, the forced collectivization successfully destroyed the capitalist system of individual farming that dominated Soviet agriculture before 1929, replaced it with a system of collective farms, and supplied the state with the capital it required to transform the U.S.S.R. into a major industrial power.agricultural policies and growth 5: Albanian postwar agricultural reforms 1:420b Arctic socioeconomic contradictions 6:135b

Baltic States kolkhoz organization 2:676aCentral Asian agricultural changes 3:1122aChinese communist rural development 4:391aEast Germany’s agricultural program 8:11gGeorgian Soviet farm system 7:1134cland reform in the Soviet Union 10:639b        origin and types 6:1129dSoviet mandatory agricultural reforms16:74hStalin’slifeandcareer17:578aCOLLECTONDELIVERYSEECASHONDELIVERY.COLLECTOR the output terminal of a transistor transistor construction and operation 16:513e COLLEGEdegree-conferring institution of higher education with a curriculum usually confined to liberal arts and scicnces. The term college can also apply to a major division of a university. In France college denotes a municipally controlled secondary school. In Great Britain “college” is ordinarily not applied to schools for children within the public systems of education (though occasionally it is retained for historical reasons). Many independent schools in Britain, however, curry it, a few, such as Winchester and Eton, because at the time of their foundation (usually in the 19th century) the name was thought to connote social prestige or to indicate that the establishment provided secondary education –then lurgely a social privilege. University colleges grew out of the practice of communal lodging in the Middle Ages. At Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge scholars found it more satisfactory and safer to rent a house in which to live jointly than to live in isolated apartments. In the 13th century these “scholars’ houses,” sometimes the gifts of benefactors or monastic foundations, gradually evolved into legally recognized corporate entities. The first absolutely clear instance in England was the foundation in 1264 of Merlon College, Oxford, by Walter de Merlon, chancellor of England and bishop of Rochester. Also, colleges of theology, teacher training, technology, commerce, and agriculture have since been established in Great Britain and elsewhere. In the United Stales the term college most commonly refers to a four-year undergraduate institution of higher education that admits students from secondary schools and grants the bachelor’s degree; it developed from the British universities but has no exact counterpart in other countries. It usually emphasizes a liberal or general education rather than specialized technical or vocational preparation. It may be an independent, privately controlled, liberal arts college, or it may be the undergraduate division of a private or state university. baseball teams and international play 2:738gfootball player recruitment In America 7:511dfootball’s history in America 7: French educational system 6:419dhumanities curricula definition 8:1179elibrary science theory and practice 10:867gmedieval Italian and English aspects 6:337e passim to 338dsocial science development role 16:84fU.S. education system and structure 6:422cU.S. 19th century development 6:366h Wilson’s reform program and acceptance 19:836f COLLEGE OF CARDINALS SEE CARDINAL. COLLEGE Park, city, southern suburb of Atlanta, in Fulton and Clayton counties, northwestern Georgia, U.S. Originally called Man Chester, it was renamed in 1895 when Cox College (no longer in existence) was established there. It is the scat of the Woodward Academy (formerly Georgia Military Academy; founded 1900). Inc. 1891. Pop. (1970) 18,203.33°39’ N, 84°27’ W COLLEGEPark, city, Prince Georges County, Maryland, U.S., northeastern residential suburb of Washington, D.C. It developed around Maryland Agricultural College (established 1856), which was absorbed by the University of Maryland when its main campus was located at College Park in 1920. The Maryland Agricultural Experimental Station (1887), which maintains outlying farms, is in College Bark. Surrounding institutions include the west), the National Agricultural Research Center, and Ft. Meade (northeast), and Goddard Space Flight Center (east). The Army Aviation School was activated at the College Park airfield in 1909 with Wilbur Wright as an instructor. Inc. town, 1945; city. 1955. Pop. (1970) 26,156. 39°00’ N, 76° 55’ W COLLEGE STATIONcity, Brazos County, southeastern Texas, U.S. Having grown up around the Texas Agricultural and Mechanical University (inaugurated 1876 as a college, university status attained 1963), the city is essentially residential with its economy geared to that of the university. Located on the Houston and Texas Central Railroad (now the Southern Pacific), the college was known as a “flag station.” When a post office was established in 1877, the words college and station were combined to form the name. Inc. 1 “38. Pop. (1960) 11.396; (1970) 17,676. 30°37’ N, 96°21’ WCOLLEGIA, BYZANTINE (GUILDS): SEE EPARCH COLLEGIALITYin various Christian denominations, especially Roman Catholicism, Anglicanism, and Eastern Christianity, the view that bishops, in addition to their role as individuals presiding over local churches (in most cases, dioceses), are members of a body that has the same teaching and ruling functions in the universal church that the Apostles had in the early church. Based on the concept in Roman law of “college,” a body of persons, not fewer than three, associated together by the possession of common function, the collegiality of bishops is reflected in the ancient tradition that at least three bishops should participate in the consecration of a priest to the episcopacy. Historically, the collegiate function of bishops has been manifested in regional or national synods or conferences and in the less frequent meetings of all bishops (ecumenical councils). The second Vatican Council (1962-65) clarified the Catholic position on the relationship of the bishops to the pope, who is considered by Catholics to be head of the episcopal college. The concept should not be confused with collegiate episcopacy (the government of a local church by a body of presbyters as found in the 1st century). papal authority dogma of Vatican II 13:961eRoman Catholic episcopacy 15:989gteaching authority in Roman Catholic Church 15:995b COLLEGIA PIETATISprayer groups assembled by Philipp Jakob Spener, and the term from which Pietism derives its name. Spener’s assembly of piety 14:456f COLLEGIO ARALDICOItalian heraldic college. Italian heraldic arms tradition 8:797c                COLLEGIUM ROMANUMschool in Rome, Italy, during the 18th century. Tridentine inception 15:1012f COLLEGNOtown, Torino province, Piemonte (Piedmont) region, northwestern Italy, on the Dora Riparia River. It is an industrial centre with foundries, textile mills, and food-processing plants, and is the site of a mental institution, housed in an old Carthusian monastery. Pop. (1971 prelim.) mun., 41,478. 45°05’ N, 7°34’ E COLLEMAa lichen (algal-fungal partnership) of Arctic and temperate regions. Its dark brown or black thallus (plant body) is gelatinous when wet. It belongs to the family Collemataceae (order Lecanorales). structure, appearance, and classification 10:884g COLLERNBOLA (insect): see spring tail.COLLENEHYMA TISSUE plant tissue which provides structural rigidity for many plant organs and is found chiefly in the cortex of stems and in leavesCOLLEONI, BARTOLOMEO (1400 75), Italian conciottiere, at various limes in Venetian and Milanese service and from 1454 general in chief of the Venetian Republic for life, but who is most important as a pioneer of field artillery tactics. He assigned light field pieces to the rear of his infantry or cavalry, to be fired through prearranged gaps in the forward units. Andrea del Verrocchio’s bronze statue of Colleoni (in Venice, 1483 88) is considered one of the finest equestrian statues of the Italian Renaissance. Colleoni himself was noted as a patron of art gunnery tactics development 8:489amilitary aims and defeat 9:1144h         COLLEONI MONUMENT (1496), bronze equestrian statue of the condottiere Bartolomeo Colleoni modelled by Andrea del Verrocchio and cast, after his death, by Alessandro Leo pardi; in the Piazza of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, Italy. scenographic style and influence 19:94a; illus.COLLETtypeof jewel setting in which the gem ts affixed to its metal support by means of a circular band of metal enclosing its circumference, the lower edge of the band embedded in the setting. jewelry making gem-mounting techniques 10:166b COLLETIAgenus of spiny South American shrub with flattened branchlets. It belongs to the family Rhamnaceae (order Rhamnales). Several species are grown outdoors in warm regions or indoors as curiosities. shrub structure diversity 15:794c COLLETIDAESEEBEE. COLLETOTRICHUM COFFEANUMspecies of fungi that causes anthracnose (disease characterized by dark sunken lesions or blisters) of the coffee fruit. coffee plant disease and damage 4:819g COLLETT, CAMILLAnee WERGELAND (b. Jan. 23. 1813, Kristiansand, Nor.–d. March 6, 1895, Christiania, now Oslo), novelist, passionate advocate of women’s rights, and author of the first novel in Norwegian literature dealing critically with the position of women; its immense influence on later writers–especially Ibsen, BjØrnson, Jonas Lie, and Alexander Kielland–is reflected in the late 19th century, when women’s emancipation became the burning topic of the cloy. She was the sister of Norway’s beloved national poet Henrik Wergeland, and as a young woman she was in love with his greatest rival, J.S. Welhaven. Her relationship with Welhaven ended unhappily, and she later married Peter Jonas Collett, who strongly encouraged her writing. It was not, however, until after his death and the death of her parents and brother that she wrote the novel for which she is most famous, Amtmandens dØttre (1855; “The Governor’s Daughter”). In it she spoke for all women who wanted to become functioning, self-determining, free human beings. She attacked the existing inequality of the sexes and the conventional marriage and home based on patriarchal dominion. The theme of her second novel, I de lange naetter (1862; “In the Long Nights”), was less aggressive; it dealt with reminiscences of her childhood and youth. The rest of her works were dedicated to the social and emotional emancipation of women. Norwegian 19th-century literature 10:1206fCOLLETT, GLENNA (U.S. golfer): see Vare, Glenna Collett. COLLICULUS SEMINALISalso called SEMINAL COLLICULUS, small elevation on the prostatic portion of the male urethra. human anatomic description 15:693c COLLIE town, southwest Western Australia, state’s only coalfield, which occupics 90 sq mi (230 sq km) in the river’s basin. The coal was first mined in 1898 and is used mainly for power generation at the Bunbury and Muja stations. Situated on a rail line to Perth (100 mi [160 km] north), the town, declared a municipality in 1901, also serves a region of jarrah forest (hardwood timber for lumbering), which is largely cleared for sheep, beef, dairy, grain, and fruit farming. The nver, which is seasonal, was discovered (1829) by Alexander Collie, the first government resident (1831-33) of Albany, a port and regional centre on King George Sound. Rising in plateau country north of Boyup Brook, it flows for 60 mi northwest past the town of Collie, entering the Indian Ocean at Koombana Bay. Wellington Reservoir supplies irrigation water for a 9,000-ac (3,600-ha) agricultural project and pipes water eastward to towns of the Wheat Belt (q.v.). Pop. (1971 prelim.) 6,802. 33°21’ S, 116°09’ Emap, Australia 2:400 COLLIEworking dog developed in Great Britain, probably by the 18th century. There are two varieties of collie: the rough-coated, originally used to guard and herd sheep, and the smooth-coated, used mainly to drive livestock to market. Collies are lithe dogs with tapering heads, almond-shaped eyes, and erect ears that tip forward at the ends. Both varieties are identical in form, although some authorities believe they were once distinct breeds. The rough-coated collie, a popular companion and watchdog, has a thick, straight coat that forms a heavy ruff about its neck and throat; the smooth-coated collie has a dense, smooth coat. Both varieties stand 56 to 66 centimetres (22 to 26 inches) and weigh 23 to 34 kilograms (50 to 75 pounds), and both are famed for their loyalty. They are brown and white, black with tan and white, blue gray with black mottling and white markings, or white, usually with darker markings. The border collie, typically an outstanding sheep dog, is a breed that has been used along the English-Scottish border for about 300 years. A long-haired dog, usually black and white in colour, it stands about 51 centimetres (20 inches) and weighs 14 to 23 kilograms (30 to 50 pounds). It is purebred but not recognized by the American Kennel Club. COLLIER, ARTHUR (b. Oct. 12, 1680, Ungford Magna, Wiltshire–d. September 1732), Idealist philosopher and theologian remembered for his concept of human knowledge. Educated at Oxford, he became rector at Langford Magna in 1704 Like the Irish philosopher George Berkeley, Collier denied that an external world exists independent of that conceptualized by a mind. In his major work, Clavis Universalis (1713; “Universal Key”), he argued that men dare not conclude that what seems to perception to be external is actually external, for such objects as hallucinations, which seem external, are admitted to be internal. The difference between a seen and an imagined object, Collier asserted. is not that the seen object possesses a quality of externality out that it is more vividly experienced than the imagined–a difference that he held to be insufficient proof that the seen object exists independently of the thinker. Extending his argument, Collier insisted that the very idea of an external world is self-contradictory. What men perceive, he said, exists only in relation to their minds. He did not claim that the mind is the cause of the ideas that it contains but rather that the existence of objects in the external world is dependent upon the mental state of the perceiver. Thus, he did not deny that external objects exist; he denied only that they exist independently of the mind. Such an attitude, according to Collier, is necessary in order to understand that everything exists only by way of its dependence on the one supreme substance, God. Outlined in his unpublished “Confession” of 1709, Collier’s metaphysics is interpreted theologically in his works A Specimen of True Philosophy (.1730) and Logology (1732 COLLIER, JEREMY (b. Sept. 23, 1650, Stow by Quy, Cambridge:,,arc. Eng.–d. April 26, 1726, London), bishop of the nonjurors (clergy who refused to take the oaths of allegiance to William III and Mary II in 1689), was the author of a celebrated attack on the immorality of the stage. He attended Caius College, Cambridge, in 1669, and was ordained priest in 1677. He became chaplain to the countess dowager of Dorset and in 1679 rector of Ampton, near Bury St. Edmunds. He was made lecturer of Gray’s Inn in 1685, but resigned at the Revolution and was sent to Newgate for writing a pamphlet supporting James II and answering Bishop Burnet’s Enquiry Into the Present State of Affairs. Released without trial after several months, he was again imprisoned in November 1692 on suspicion of treasonable correspondence with James, but was freed within ten days. In 1696 he daringly gave absolution on the scaffold to Sir John Friend and Sir William Parkyns, condemned for attempting to assassinate William III. Collier absconded und lived under sentence of outlawry. When the storm subsided, he returned to London. His first volume of Essays, an enlarged edition of the Miscellanies (1694, 1695), appeared in 1697. Further volumes followed in 1705 and 1709. In his notorious A Short view of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage (1698), Collier attacks Wycherley, Dryden, Congreve, Vanbrugh, nnd D’Urfey, censuring them for indecency, for profane language, for abusing the clergy, and for undermining public morality by sympathetic presentation of vice. Collier’s eager accumulation of indecent examples combines unpleasantly with an ostensible moral indignation and provided an easy target for his adversaries. An ensuing pamphlet war lasted spasmodically until 1726. Collier’s Great Historical, Geographical, Genealogical, and Poetical Dictionary, a translation, with additions, of Louis Moreri’s Grand Dictionnal, htstorique (1674), was published in 1701, with supplementary volumes in 1705 and 1721. Consecrated in 1713 by George Hickes, the sole survivor of the nonjuring bishops, he was created, on July 23, 1716, primus of the church of the nonjurors. Collier favoured the 1549 Book of Common Prayer and regretted that later editions omitted certain usages from the communion service. His Reasons for Restoring Some Prayers (1717) recommended the reintroduction of the oblatory prayer, the invocation, the mixed chalice, and the petition for the faithful departed. The consequent “usages” controversy split the nonjuring community, and the ultimate extinction of the party may be attributed to this division. In 1718 was published a new Communion Office, which embodied the changes required by Collier and was probably chiefly compiled by him. A life of Collier is in volume nine of T. Lalhbury’s nine-volume edition of Collier’s Ecclesiastical History (1852; originally published in 2 vol., 1708, 1714), licensing and censorship in theatre 3:1087hliterary style and purpose 10:1151hRestoration comedy and sentimentality 4:963a COLLIER, JOHN PAYNE

(1789-1883), English specialist in Elizabethan and Jacobean drama (with Special reference to Shakespeare), enjoyed a high reputation for scholarship until, in the 1850s, his forgeries of text began to be exposed. Collier Bay, inlet of the Indian Ocean, indenting the northern coast of Western Australia. The bay stretches c. 60 mi (97 km) east-west and is about 40 mi north-south. Montgomery and Koolan islands are at its entrance. 16° 10’ S, 124°15’ Emap, Australia 2:400COLLIER’SU.S.magazine, discontinued in 1957. magazine publishing history 15:252dCOLLIER’sENCYCLOPEDIAU.S. encyclopaedia, first published in 1950. U.S. encyclopaedia development 6COLLIGATIVE PROPERTYin chemistry, any property of a substance that depends on, or varies according to, the number of particles (molecules or atoms) present but docs not depend on the nature of the particles. An example is the pressure of a gas. reaction mechanism and bond cleavage 4:151asolution properties and characteristics 16:1051aCOLLIMATOR device for changing the diverging light or other radiation from a point source to a parallel beam. This collimation of the light is required to make specialized measurements in spectroscopy and in geometrical and physical optics An optical collimator consists of a tube containing a convex lens at one end and an adjustable slit at the other, the slit being in the focal plane of the lens. Radiation entering the slit leaves the collimator as a parallel beam, so that the image can be viewed without parallax. The collimator may be a telescope with a slit at the principal focal length of the lens. Light from the luminous source is focussed oil this slit by a lens of similar focal length, and the slit then serves as the luminous object of the optical system. In radiology, a collimator is an arrangement of absorbers for limiting u beam of X-rays, gamma rays, or nuclear particles to the dimensions and angular spread required for the specific application. astronomical spectroscope construction 2:236bspectrometer components nnd operation 17:460a COLLINEATIONin mathematics, a type of transformation in which points are. carried into points, lines into lines, and planes into planes. algebraic structure theory 1:525danalytic geometry fundamentals 7:1087e COLLING, ROBERT AND CHARLES (respectively b. 1749, Ketton, Durham–d. March 7, 1820, Barmpton; b. 1751, Ketton–d. Jan. 16, 1836), stock raisers, first scientific breeders of Shorthorn, or Durham, beef cattle. After visiting Robert Bakewell, the outstanding livestock breeder, at Dishley, Leicestershire, Charles began in 1782 a program of improving the quality of cattle in the Tees River Valley. His brother, who occupied another farm in the district, later turned to cattle breeding. Charles’s wife, the former Mary Colpitts (1763-1850). also is credited with valuable work in cattle breeding. Hubback, Comet, and Favourite were famous Shorthorn bulls owned by one or both brothers. CODINGS, JESSE (b. Jan. 9, 1831, Littlehamcum-Exmouth, Devon–d. Nov. 20, 1920, Edgbaston, Birmingham, Eng.), politician, educational and agrarian reformer whose land policy was summarized in the slogan “three acres and a cow,” A partner in a Birmingham mercantile firm (1864-79), he served as mayor of the city (1878 80), succeeding Joseph Chamberlain with whose municipal reform program he had been closely associated. Subsequently he was a member of the House of Commons (1880-1918), parliamentary secretary to the Local Government Board (1886), and undersecretary to the Home Office (1895 1902). In 1869 Collings became secretary of the National Education League, an influential body that advocated free, nondenominational elementary schools. Later he helped to found the Rural Labourers’ League and was a trustee of Joseph Arch’s National Agricultural Labourers’ Union. Collings urged peasant ownership of farmland and vocational education in agricultural areas. The Land Settlement Act of 1919 incorporated many of his ideas. On Jan. 27, 1886, Collings caused the fall of the Conservative government of Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, the 3rd marquess of Salisbury, by introducing, as an amendment to an Irish coercion bill, a measure in favour of English rural smallholdings. The following March he resigned as Local Government Board secretary (along with Chamberlain, at that time board president) in protest against the Irish Home Rule proposal of Salisbury’s Liberal successor, William Ewart Gladstone. COLLINGWOODnortheastern inner suburb of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, on the Yarra River. Named in the mid-19th century after Baron Cuthbert Collingwood, it has become a densely populated, highly industrialized section of the Melbourne metropolian area, its principal industries being the manufacture of footwear and textiles. There are two large technical schools and extensive recreation areas. Pop. (1971 prelim.) 20,906. 37°48’ S, 145”00’ E COLLINGWOODtown, Simcoe County, southeastern Ontario, Canada, on Nottawasaga Bay (an arm of Georgian Bay). Originally part of the territory of the Tobacco Indian Nation, it was first settled in the late 1830s on a site just cast of the present town and called Hurontario Mills (now referred to as “the old village”). The modern community, named after Adm. Cuthbert Collingwood, Horatio Nelson’s successor at Trafalgar (1805), grew with the establishment of a sawmill and the arrival of a railroad from Toronto, 70 mi (110 km) to the southeast, in the 1850s. Collingwood’s harbour has extensive dry’ docks and shipyards. with a flourishing shipbuilding industry. Other manufactures include canned goods. lumber, pottery, textiles, and furniture. several bathing bcaches, ski resorts, and a fish hatchery. Inc. 1858. Pop. (1971) 9 775 44°29’ N, 80°13’ W COLLINGWOOD,CUTHBERTCOLLINGWOOD,1ST (1748-1810), British naval commander, was Nelson’s second-in-command at Trafalgar and held the Mediterranean command thereafter with distinction until his death. Collingwood took part in the “glorious first of June” victory (1794) under Lord Howe, and was conspicuous three years later in the victory off Cape. St. Vincent, He was promoted to rear admiral in 1797, and to vice-admiral in 1804. He commanded a squadron under Nelson during the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) and took command of the British fleet when the latter was killed Nelson’s command in Trafalgar 12.949g COLLINGWOOD, R(OBIN) G(EORGE) (B. FEB 22, 1889, CARTMEL FELL, LANCASHIRE–D. JAN. 9, 1943, CONISTON), HISTORIAN AND PHILOSOPHER WHOSE WORK PROVIDED A MAJOR 20TH-CENTURY ATTEMPT TO RECONCILE PHILOSOPHY AND HISTORY. Deeply influenced by his father, a painter and archaeologist who was a friend and biographer of John Ruskin, Collingwood was educated at home until he was 13. Throughout his life he painted and composed music. After five years at Rugby, he entered Oxford in 1908, was elected tutor in philosophy in 1912, and remained there until his retirement in 1941. Between 1911 and around 1934, Collingwood concentrated on archaeological studies that made him the leading authority on Roman Britain in his day. The best known of these works are The Archaeology of Roman Britain (1930) and Roman Britain and the English Settlements in the Oxford History of England (1936). The same period saw the development of Collingwood’s philosophical thought An early book entitled Religion and Philosophy (1916), a critique of empirical psychology and an analysis of religion as a form of knowledge, was. followed by a major work, Speculum Mentis (1924), which proposed a philosophy of culture stressing the unity of the mind. Structured around five forms of experience art, religion, science, history, and philosophy – the work sought a synthesis of levels of knowledge. During later years, Collingwood enriched his conception of philosophy and history proposed a notion of philosophical inquiry that is dependent on the study of history. In two works, Essay on Philosophical Method (1933) and An Essay on Metaphysics (1940), he proposed the historical nature of civilization’s presuppositions and urged that metaphysical study evaluate these presuppositions as historically defined conceptions rather than as eternal verities. His last book, The Idea of History (published posthumously in 1946), proposed history as a discipline in which one relives the past in one’s own mind. Only by immersing oneself in the mental actions behind events, by rethinking the past within the context of one’s own experience, can the historian discover the significant patterns and dynamics of cultures and civilizations. Collingwood has been criticized for an overly intellectualist analysis of the motivating forces in history, but his attempt to integrate history and philosophy is recognized as a significant scholarly contribution. He published An Autobiography in 1939. aesthetic theory of expressionism 1:157bhistorical methods and goals 8: science laws and generalizations 16:385c COLLINS, (b. June 21, 1676, Heston, Middlesex–d. Dec. 13, 1729, London), prolific and provocative Deist and freethinker and an intimate friend of the English Empiricist philosopher John Locke. In Collins’ first noteworthy work, Essay concerning the use of Reason in propositions the evidence wherof depends on Human Testimony (1707) he demanded that revelation should nature. Neither an atheist nor an agnostic, Collins wrote in A Discourse of Free-thinking (1713), his major work, “Ignorance is the foundation of Atheism and Free-Thinking the Cure of it.” Like all of his other works, this essay was published anonymously. It immediately caused a sensation, eliciting numerous replies. Similarly, no fewer than 35 answers were directed against his Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion,, prefixed by An Apology for Free Debate and Liberty of Writing (1724). Written in opposition to the effort of William Whiston, an English theologian, to show that the Old Testament prophesied New Testament events, the work asserts that such fulfillment by Christ of Old Testament prophecies is all “secondary, secret, allegorical, and mystical.” To his opponents, who included Anglican bishops and the theologian Samuel Clarke, Collins replied with his Scheme of Literal Prophecy considered (1726). An appendix to the work, directed at Whiston, maintains that the Old Testament Book of Daniel was a forgery. Collins major contribution in this field was to help prepare the way for modern biblical criticism and to render the questionable validity of the scriptural canon an unavoidable issue. Although most Deists defended the doctrine of individual freedom of the will, Collins advocated the philosophical view known as necessitarianism, referring to an inevitable cause and effect relationship between events. His outline of this position, the brief Inquiry concerning Human Liberty and Necessity (1715). was attacked by Samuel Clarke, and Collins’ Liberty and Necessity (1729) was his rejoinder. Against Clarke he also argued, in A Letter to Mr. Dodwell (1707), that, even if an immaterial soul be admitted, it docs not follow automatically that such a soul is immortal. Collins’ other writings include Vindication of the Divine Attributes (1710), Priestcraft in Perfection (1709), and two tributes to John Locke published in 1708 and 1720. Rationalism of Deists 15:530f COLLINS, ARCH P20th-century U.S. Pentecostal leader Assembly of Cod organization 14: 32e COLLINS, EDWARD KNIGHT (b. Aug. 5, 1802, Truro. Mass.–d. Jan. 22, 1878, New York City), shipowner who in 1847 founded the government subsidized United States Mail Steamship Company (Collins Line), which for a time gave serious competition to the British Cunard Line. From 1850 to 1854 Collins’s paddle-wheel steamers, the “Atlantic,” “Pacific,” “Arctic,” and “Baltic,” were the fastest and most luxurious ships in the transatlantic service. In 1858, after the loss of two ships at sea and the withdrawal of the government subsidy, the line ceased operations. COLLINS, JOSEPH LAWTON (1896 ), U.S. Army officer, commander of the VII Corps in Europe during World War II, which captured Cherbourg, led the breakout from Normandy, pierced the Siegfried Line, captured Aachen and Cologne, enveloped the Ruhr from the south and east, and then drove eastward to a meeting with the Russians on the Elbe River at Dessau.    COLLINS, MICHAEL (b. Oct. 16, 1890, Clona-kilty, County Cork-d. Aug. 22, 1922, Bealna-Blath, Cork), hero of the Irish struggle for independence, best remembered for his daring strategy in directing the campaign of guerrilla warfare during the intensification of the Anglo-Irish War (1919-21). He was employed as a British civil servant in London from 1906 until he returned to Ireland in 1916. He fought in the Easter Rising, was arrested and held in detention at Frongoch, Merioneth, but was released in December 1916. In December 1918 he was one of 27 out of 73 elected Sinn Fein members (most of whom were in jail) to be present when the Dail Eire ann (assembly of Ireland) convened at the Mansion House in Dublin and declared for the republic. Their elected president, Eamon De Valcra, and their vice president, Arthur Griffith, were both in prison. Hence, much responsibility fell on Collins, who became first Sinn Fein minister of home affairs and, after arranging for De Valera’s escape from Lincoln jail (February 1919), minister of finance. It was as general of the volunteers and as director of intelligence of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), however, that he became famous, As chief planner and coordinator of the revolutionary movement, he headed the list of men wanted by the British authorities, who placed a price of £10,000 on his head.After the truce of July 1921, Griffith and Collins were sent to London by De Valera as the principal negotiators for peace (October- December 1921). The treaty of Dec. 6, 1921, was signed by Collins in the belief that it was the best that could be obtained for Ireland at the time and in the full awareness that he was signing his own death warrant. It gave Ireland dominion status, but its provisions for partition and for an oath of allegiance to the crown were unacceptable to De Valera and other republican leaders. Collins’ persuasiveness won acceptance for the treaty by it small majority in the Dail and a provisional government was formed with Griffith as president and Collins as chairman; but effective administration was obstructed by the mutinous activities of the anti-treaty republicans. Collins refrained from taking action against his former comrades until IRA insurgents seized the Four Courts in Dublin and civil war bccamc inevitable. Collins assumed command of the army and on Griffith’s death (August 12) became head of the government. Ten days later, on a tour of military inspection, he was shot to death in an ambush in west Cork Irish Free Stale founding 9: Irish Free Stale provisional government 3: COLLINS, MICHAEL (b, Oct. 31, 1930, Rome), U.S. astronaut, co-pilot of the Gemini 10 flight and Command Module pilot of Apollo 11, the first manned lunar landing mission. A graduate of the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y., he transferred to the Air Force, becoming a test pilot at Edwards Air Force Base in California. He joined the space program in 1963. Gemini 10, manned by Collins and John W. Young, was launched on July 18. 1966. After a rendezvous with an Agena target vehicle, the two men used the Agena’s engines to propel them to a record altitude of 475 miles (765 kilometres), where Collins left the spacecraft to remove equipment needed for a micrometeoritc experiment from the aft end of the Gemini and attempted unsuccessfully to attach similar equipment to the Agena. He succeeded in retrieving an instrument from the Agena, but his extravehicular activity was cut short because the Gemini craft wus low on fuel. Gemini 10 returned to Earth on July 21 Collins was chosen for the Apollo 8 mission, the first flight around the Moon, but was removed from the crew because a bone spur and loose spinal disk required surgery. He was placed on the Apollo 11 mission, with Neil A. Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. On July 20, 1969, four days after the launch, Armstrong and Aldrin landed on the Moon. Collins remained in the Command Module, circling the Moon at an altitude of 60 to 75 miles (100 to 120 kilometres). On July 21 Arm-strong and Aldrin rejoined him, and the following day the three astronauts left lunar orbit, landing in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, Apollo 11 was his last space mission; later in 1969 he was appointed assistant secretary of state for public affairs. lunar landing flight 17:369h; table 36SCOLLINS, see Furphy, Joseph. COLLINS, (WILLIAM) WILKIE (b. Jan. 8, 1824, London–d. Sept. 23, 1889, London), early master of the mystery story and the first English novelist to write in this genre, The son of William Collins (1788-1847), the landscape painter, he developed a gift for inventing tales while still a schoolboy at a private boarding school. At an early age he was placed in the tea trade, where his performance was undistinguished. After studying law at Lincoln’s Inn, he was admitted to the bar in 1851 but proved to have as little aptitude for law as for commerce. He worked, instead, on an historical novel, painted well enough to have a picture hung at the Royal Academy, engaged in theatricals, and visited Paris. His firs! published work was a memoir to his father, who died in 1847, Memoirs of the Life of William Collins, Esq., R.A. (1848). His fiction followed shortly after: Antonina; or, the Fall of Rome (1850) and Basil (1852), a highly coloured tale of seduction and vengeance with a contemporary middle class setting and passages of uncompromising realism. In 1851 he began an association with Dickens that exerted a formative influence on his career. Their admiration was mutual. Under Dickens’ influence, Collins developed a talent for characterization, humour, and popular success, while the older writer’s debt to Collins is evident in the more skillful and suspenseful plot structures of such novels as A Tale of Two Cities (1859) and Great Expectations (1860 61). Collins began contributing serials to Dickens’ periodical Household Words, and his first major work, The Woman in White (1860), appeared in Dickens’ Alt the Year Round. Among his most successful subsequent books were No Name (1862), Armadale (1866), and The. Moonstone (1868). The quality of his later writing, when his health was poor and he made injudicious use of opium, shows a steady decline. One of the first and greatest masters of the mystery story, Collins was little concerned with the subtle ratiocinations of detection. His favourite technique was to allow the story to evolve slowly from the fragmentary reports of different narrators. This leisurely pace and the use of many subordinate characters and styles of speech give Collins’ mystery stories some of the breadth and ramifications of the traditional Victorian novel of society. He was a much- imitated writer. The motif of The Moonstone, concerning a cursed jewel that was originally stolen from an idol’s eye, has been repeated countless times, and his Count Fosco in The Woman in While is the illustrious original of innumerable bravura villains. COLLINS, WILLIAM (b. Dec. 25, 1721, Chichester, Sussex–d. June 12, 1759, Chichester), pre-Romantic poet whose lyrical odes adhered to Neoclassical forms but were Romantic in theme and feeling. Though his literary career was brief and his output slender, he is considered one of the finest English lyric poets of the 18th century. One of his best known works is the patriotic “Ode Written in the Beginning of the Year 1746” (“How sleep the brave”). He was educated at Winchester College, where he formed one of the most stable and fruitful relationships of his unstable life: his friendship with the poet Joseph Warton. When only 17, under the influence of Pope’s Pastorals, he composed his four Persian Eclogues (1742; 2nd ed., Oriental Eclogues, 1757), the only one of his works to be esteemed in his lifetime. In 1744 he published his verse Epistle: Addrest to Sir Thomas Hanmer on his Edition of Shakespeare’s Works, containing his exquisite “Dirge from Cymbeline.” Collins was graduated from Magdalen College, Oxford (1743), and went to London in 1744. An inheritance, supplemented by an allowance from his uncle, enabled him to live as a man-about-town. He made friends with Dr. Johnson, who expressed respect for his talents and, later, concern for his fate. By 1746 extravagance and dissipation put Collins deeply in debt. He agreed to collaborate with War- ton on a volume of odes, which appeared separately that December (the title page of Collins’ Odes being dated 1747). Warton’s collection was well received, but Collins’ Odes on Several Descriptive and Allegorical Subjects was barely noticed. Though disappointed, Collins continued to perfect the style exemplified in his “Ode to Simplicity.” The “simplicity” to which he was dedicated was not plainness but “severity.” He carefully avoided all sensuous appeal, as in the “Ode to Evening,” by making the abstraction, Evening. concrete by steady negation of all sounds but the faintest, all colours but the most subdued. Yet the world evoked by Collins is distinctly present to the senses, as a world above all damp and chill–sensations, in this and other poems, he associates with spiritual worth and achievement. In 1749 Collins’ uncle died, leaving him enough money to extricate himself from debt. In the next few months he wrote his “Ode on the Popular Superstitions of the Highlands of Scotland.” which anticipates many of the attitudes and interests of the Romantic poets. Threatened after 1751 by mental illness and physical debility, which he tried to cure by travel, Collins was confined in a mental asylum in 1754. Released to the care of his sister, he survived wretchedly in Chichester for five more years, neglected and forgotten by his literary friends, who believed him dead English literature development 10:1166f city, on the Madison-St. Clair county line, Illinois, U.S. Laid out in 1837 and named for an early pioneer family, it has evolved us part of an urban industrial complex in the St. Louis Metropolitan Area. Once a bituminous-coal-mining centre (the first of a score of mines was sunk in 1859), it now depends on food processing and clothing manufacturing. Fairmont Race Track and the Cahokia Mounds State Park arc a few miles west. Inc. village, 1856; city, 1872. Pop. (1970) 18,01.538°41’ N. 89°51’           objects are in contact. It is a matter of common experience that a hard steel ball dropped on a steel plate will rebound to almost the position from which it was dropped, whereas with a ball of putty or lead there is no rebound. The impact between the steel ball and plate is said to be elastic, and that between the putty or lead bulls and plate is inelastic, or plastic; between these extremes there arc varying degrees of elasticity and corresponding responses to impact. In a perfectly elastic-impact (attained only at the atomic level), none of the kinetic energy of the coacting bodies is lost; in a perfectly plastic impact, the loss of kinetic energy is a maximum. In all of the examples of colliding bodies here referred to, the time of contact is extremely short and the force of contact extremely large. In the Figure, the flattening of the golf ball ts indicative of an enormous force over a contact time of about one-thousandth of a second. It can be shown that, in the limiting case of an “infinite” force acting for an “infinitesimal” time, there is an instantaneous change in the velocity of a body but no change in its position during the period of contact. Forces of this nature are known as impulsive forces and, being difficult to measure or estimate, their effects are measured by the change in the momentum (mass limes velocity) of the body. When two bodies collide, the equal and opposite impulsive forces are internal forces in what is called a two-body system and consequently have no effect on the total momentum of the system. This phenomenon means that the sum of the momenta of the bodies before impact is equal to the sum of the momenta alter impact. The relation between the kinetic energies before and after impact depends, as previously noted, on the elasticity of the bodies. Knowing the initial velocities, the final velocities can be obtained by the solution of the momentum and energy equations. Descartes’s formulation of problem 14:387bgas particle behaviour and statistics 7:917amechanics laws and principles 11:774gmolecular inelastic collision process 12:307dparticle beam colliding energies 1:30e COLLISION THEORYin chemistry, a theory of chemical reactions used to predict reaction- rate constants, particularly for gases. The collision theory states that for a reaction to occur it is necessary for the reacting species (atoms or molecules) to come together or collide with one another. Not all collisions, however, bring about chemical change. A collision will be effective in producing chemical change only if it is sufficiently energetic for the species brought together to acquire a certain minimum value of internal energy, equal to the activation energy, for the desired reaction. Furthermore, the colliding species must be oriented in a manner favourable to rearrangement of atoms and electrons. Thus, according to the collision theory, the rate at which a chemical reaction proceeds is equal to the frequency of effective collisions. Because atomic or molecular frequencies of collisions can be calculated with some degree of accuracy only for gases (by application of the kinetic theory), the successful use of the collision theory for predicting reaction rates is limited to gas- phase reactionschemical kinetics theory development 4:l39felectron energy transfer methods 14.293g potassium and bromine beam experiment 12:308a: illus. 307quantum theory applications 11:801ereaction mechanism and energy changes 4:148e COLLITZ, (b, Feb. 4, 1855, Bleckede, now in West Germany–d. May 13, 1935, Baltimore), linguist noted for his work on the Indo-European languages; he contributed to the study of Sanskrit consonants, sound changes in the Germanic languages, and Greek dialectology. His doctoral dissertation at the University of Gottingen (1878) dealt with the origin of the Indo-Iranian palatal series of consonants and helped to explain an early, obscure, and unsuspected sound change-in Sanskrit. While teaching Sanskrit and comparative linguistics at the University of Halle (now in Fast Germany; 1885-86), he began publishing, in collaboration with a number of other scholars, Summlung der griechischen Dlalektinschriften (4 vol., 1884-1915; “Collection of Greek Dialect Inscriptions”). This work, which included vocabulary lists and grammatical studies, proved to be a major contribution to Greek comparative linguistics. In 1886 he published Die neueste Sprachforschung (“The Newest Linguistics”) and settled in the U.S. as associate professor of German at Bryn Mawr (Pennsylvania) College, where he concentrated mainly on the historical and comparative study of the Germanic languages. While professor of Germanic philology at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (1907-27), he wrote Das schwache Prateritum und seine Vorgeschichte (1912; “The Weak Past Tense and Its Antecedents”).       COLLOBLASTcell found only on the two tentacles of comb jellies, invertebrates of the phylum Ctenophora, and used in capturing food. comb jelly feeding 5:348aCOLLOCALIA(bird):seeswiftlet.COLLODIONseenitrocelluloseCOLLOID,THYROIDgelatinous material found in the cavities of the thyroid gland. physical properties and contents 6:805b COLLOIDS COLLISION in law and insurance, the impact of two vehicles or vessels. In a strict sense in maritime law, the term “collision” refers to the impact of two vessels, both of which are moving; and the term “allision” refers to a moving vessel striking another that is stationary; but “collision” is frequently employed to cover either meaning. harbours and berthing structures 8:638gmarine insurance coverage 9:646hmaritime law and assessing liability 11:502g COLLISIONor IMPACT, the sudden, forceful coming together in direct contact of two bodies, such as, for example, two billiard balls, a golf club and a ball, a hammer and a nail head, two railroad cars when being coupled together, or a falling object and a floor. Apart from the properties of the materials of the two objects, two factors affect the result of impact: the force and the time during which 4:853, substances composed of particles much larger than atoms or ordinary molecules but much too small to be visible to the unaided eye. Colloids may exist as dispersions of one substance in another, for example, smoke particles in air, or as single substances, for example, rubber. TEXT ARTICLE covers: History of colloid studies 4:854aIrreversible systems: lyophobic sols(dilute suspensions), emulsions, foams, pastes (concentrated suspensions), gel structures 855b Reversible systems: polymers, proteins, gels, association colloids 858cREFERENCES in other text articles: elasticity in suspensions and gels 6:519efood preservation phenomena 7:490hmeat structure and chemistry 11:746hpaint film formation 13:890ephotographic technology and processes 14:328fphycocolloid extraction and uses 7:351aplant responses to cold 5:959hprecipitation of ore deposits l3:669hprotein foaming characteristics 15: suspension transport properties 18:675g ultramicroscope development and operation 12: viscosity and deformation of solution 5:554gwet collodion photographic process 14:311fRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index: colloid types: see emulsion: foam; gel; sol: associated effects: coagulation; electrophoresis; Flocculation; Liesegang ring; micelle; Tyndall effect COLLOPHANEmassive cryptocrystalline apatite, composing the bulk of fossil bone and phosphate rock (q.v.); commonly carbonate- containing fluorapatite or fluorian hydroxylapatite. Hornlike concretions having a grayish-white, yellowish, or brown colour are common. For detailed physical properties, see table under phosphate minerals. phosphate rock structure 14:285cCOLLOQUY OF THE ANCIENTSsee Interrogation of the Old Men, The.COLLOT D’HERBOIS, JEAN-MARIE (b. June 19, 1749, Paris–d. Jan. 8, 1796, Sinnamary, French Guiana), a member of the Committee of Public Safety that ruled revolutionaryFrance during the period of the Jacobin dictatorship (1 793 94). He was a radical democrat and man of violence who consistently opposed Robespierre’s pre-eminence in the committee. The son of a Parisian goldsmith. Collot d’Herbois became a professional actor and a writer of comedies. In 1787 he was manager of a theatre in Lyons, and by 1789–the year the Revolution broke out–he was staging his plays in Paris. He joined the Jacobin Club and, in 1791. gained fame with his Almanach du Pere Gerard (“Almanac of Old Gerard”), which set forth principles of constitutional monarchy. Collot d’Herbois’ acting talents made him an effective agitator among the Parisian lower classes. As a member of a newly formed “revolutionary Commune,” he helped organize the popular insurrection that overthrew the monarchy on Aug. 10, 1792. He became a deputy to the National Convention, which convened on September 20. The following day this body adopted his motion for the abolition of the monarchy. Sent in March 1793 to the Nievre and Loiret departements, he ordered the arrest of all Roman Catholic priests. The Jacobins seized control of the Revolutionary government on June 2, 1793, and on July 26 Collot d’Herbois and his friend Jean-Nicolas Billaud-Varenne secured passage of a stringent law against hoarding. Soon both men were identified with the extreme democrats (the left wing of the Jacobin Club) led by Jacques Hebert. Taking advantage of popular unrest in Paris, the Hebertists forced the convention to appoint Collot d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne to the Committee of Public Safety in early September. On Oct. 30, 1793, Collot d’Herbois and Joseph Fouche were sent to pacify Lyons, where a counter revolutionary uprising had just been crushed. By organizing mass executions of the Lyonese bourgeoisie, Collot d’Herbois earned a reputation as a man of blood. Returning to Paris in December, he came into conflict with Robespierre by supporting the “dechristianizers” who were destroying Catholic institutions. Robespierre had the leading Hebertists guillotined in March 1794, and pressure from Collot d’Herbois and Billaud-Varenne forced him to eliminate Georges Danton, the leader of the Jacobins’ right wing, in April. In May counterrevolutionaries attempted unsuccessfully to assassinate Collot d’Herbois and Robespierre. With passage of the law of 22 Prairial (June 10, 1794), the trials of suspects were speeded up, and the “Great Terror” was initiated. Thereafter, tensions increased between Collot d’Herbois and the Robcspier- rists. Conspiring with Robespierre’s enemies in the Committee of General Security and the convention, Collot d’Herbois helped bring about Robespierre’s downfall on 9 Thermidor (July 27, 1794). In the ensuing Thcrmidorian reaction against the Jacobins, Collot d’Herbois was deported to Guiana (April 17951, where he later died of yellow fever COLLOTHUNIranian unit of volume equivalent to 8.22 litres weights and measures, table 5 19:733 COLLOTYPEalso called PHOTOGELATIN. photomechanical printing process which gives accurate reproduction because no halftone screen is employed to break the images into dots. In the process, a plate (usually aluminum) is coated with a light-sensitive gelatin solution and exposed to the image. The gelatin is hardened in exposed areas and is then soaked in glycerin which is absorbed most in the non- hardened areas. When exposed to high humidity, these areas absorb moisture and repel the greasy ink. The hardened areas accept the ink and the plate can be used to produce a printed image invention and later revival 14:105gpreparation and quality advantage 14:1072c COLLUTHUS OF LYCOPOLIS (fl. c. AD 500), Greek epic poet now represented by only one extant poem, The Rape of Helen, which was discovered in Calabria. The poem is in imitation of Homer and Nonnus and tells the story of Pans and Helen from the wedding of Peleus and Thetis down to the elopement and arrival at Troy. According to the Suda lexicon, Colluthus was also the author of Calydoniaca (probably an account of the Calydonian boar hunt); Persica (an account of the Persian wars); and Encomia (laudatory poems in epic verse). These are all lost. COLLUVIUMsoil and debris that accumulate at the base of a slope by mass wasting or sheet erosion. It generally includes angular fragments, not sorted according to size, and may contain slabs of bedrock that dip back toward the slope, indicating both their place of origin and that slumping was the process of transportation. At the edges of valleys, colluvium may be interfingered with and almost indistinguishable from alluvium. erosion and sediment storage 16:475h; illus. 474formation and angle of repose 8:877b; illus. 875COLLYBIA (fungus): see Agaricales. COLMAN, GEORGE, THE ELDER (b. April 1732, Florence–d. Aug. 14, 1794, London), a leading comic dramatist of his day and an important theatre manager whose early work opposed the newly developing taste for sentimental comedy and who later sought to revive the vigour of Elizabethan drama with adaptations of plays by Beaumont and Fletcher and Ben Jonson. The son of Francis Colman, envoy to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, after his father’s death, in 1733, he became the ward of an uncle, William Pulteney (later 1st earl of Bath). He abandoned a legal career for literature and the theatre, and his first play, Polly Honeycombe (1760), satirized the current craze for romantic novels. It was presented as an after- piece by the great actor-manager David Gar- rick at London’s Drury Lane Theatre. His next play, The Jealous Wife (1761), an adaptation of Henry Fielding’s novel Tom Jones, was one of the best comedies of the age and held its placc in the stock theatrical repertoire for nearly a century. Colman collaborated with Garrick on The Clandestine Marriage (1766), a play blending sentiment with satire, which is still Stageworthy. In 1767 Colman bought a quarter share in Covent Garden theatre. London, which he managed for seven years, during which time he appreciably raised the standard of acting and of drama. In 1776 he bought the Little Theatre in the Hay, Haymarket, London, a summer theatre that reached the peak of its fame under his management. In 1785 Colman suffered a stroke, from which he never fully recovered. COLMAN, GEORGE, THE YOUNGER (b. Oct. 21, 1762, London–d. Oct. 17, 1836, London), playwright, writer of scurrilous satiric verse, and theatre manager whose comic operas, farces, melodramas, and sentimental comedies were box-office successes in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, when English drama was at a low ebb. He kept his popularity by giving audiences what they wanted, gradually replacing wit with sentiment as taste changed. Dr. Pangloss, the elderly pedant in The Heir at Law (first performed 1797). is his only outstanding comic creation. But the comic opera Two to One (1784), his first success; the melodramas The Battle of Hexham (1789) and The Iron Chest (1796), based on the novel Caleb Williams by William Godwin, political Philosopher, revolutionary, and intellectual inspiration of the early Romantic poets; and John Bull (1803), his most popular comedy, long kept their place in the repertory of the Little Theatre in the Hay, London, the management of which Colman took over from his father. When his father died in 1794, he bought the theatre, selling part of his share in 1803 and the rest in 1830. As examiner (or censor) of plays, 1824-36, his severity caused resentment. COLMAN, NORMAN JAY (b. May 16, 1827, near Richfield Springs, N.Y.–d, Nov. 3, 1911, Si. Louis, Mo.), farm journalist who, as U.S. commissioner of agriculture, so enlarged the scope and activities of his bureau that it was elevated to the level of a Cabinet post. After a short law career, he moved to St. Louis in 1852, where he became editor-publisher of The Valley Farmer (called Colman’s Rural World after 1864), Through its pages he advocated better farming methods and disseminated knowledge of new techniques, some of which he practiced on his own farm. He entered the Missouri legislature in 1865 and in 1874 was elected lieutenant governor. Colman’s wide and practical knowledge of agriculture and his interest in improving farming techniques gained him the post of U.S. commissioner of agriculture in 1885. Perhaps his greatest achievement was the establishment of government agricultural experimental stations. He was instrumental in authoring the Hatch Act of 1887, which allowed government support of the experimental station program. Pres. Grover Cleveland named him secretary of agriculture in 1889, when the Department of Agriculture became a Cabinet office, but he served only briefly because of a change of presidential administrations in the same year. He continued to edit Colman’s Rural World until his death, after which it was absorbed by the Journal of Agriculture. COLMAN OF LIADISFARNE, SAINT (b. c. 605, Connaught province, Ireland–d. Aug. 8, 676. Inishbofin, island off counties Galway and Mayo), important prelate of the early Irish Church and monastic founder who led the Celtic parly at the crucial Synod (664) of Whitby, Yorkshire, held by the church of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria to decide whether to follow Celtic or Roman usages. Colman was a monk at the celebrated monastery of lona–an island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyll–before succeeding, in 661, St. Finan to become the third bishop-abbot of the great Northumbrian diocese of Lindis-        fame or Holy Island. His episcopacy witnessed a vital turning point in the development of the Christian Church in England. Though Northumbria had been mainly converted by Celtic missionaries, there was by 662 an influential party that subscribed to Roman Church customs, particularly in determining the date of Easter. The synod decided in favour of Rome, supposedly in the belief that Rome followed the teaching of the Apostle St. Peter. A. staunch proponent of the Celtic customs and method of calculating the date of Easter, Colman objected to the synod’s decisions, including those on various other Roman practices, that brought the English church into closer contact with the Continent. He resigned his see and, with all the Irish and about 30 of the English monks of Lindisfarne, returned to Iona. Between 665 and 667 he founded several Scottish churches, afterward sailing to Ireland with his disciples. They settled on Inishbofin, off’ the west coast of Ireland, where in 668 Colman built a monastery. Subsequent quarrels between the two groups led him to found a separate abbey at Mayo (a village now in south central County Mayo) for the English monks, subsequently called Mayo of the Saxons. lie was abbot of both establishments until his death, Although the Venerable Bede disapproved of the Celtic customs, he had high praise for Colman in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, considered to be the best source for Colman’s life at Lindisfarne. He is styled Colman of Lindisfarne to distinguish him from numerous other saints named Colman who are listed in the Irish martyroiogies. His feast day is celebrated in the Scottish diocese of Argyll and the Isles on February 18 and elsewhere on August 8. Other biographies are found in Moran’s Irish Saints in Great Britain (1903) and in vol. 8 of O’Hanlon’s Lives of the Irish Saints. COLMARtown, northeastern France, capital of Haut-Rhin departement, 42 mi (68 km) south-south west of Strasbourg, 10 mi (16 km) west of the Rhine River, bordering the German frontier and a few miles east of the foothills of the Vosges Mountains. It is on the main railway from Strasbourg to Mulhouse and Basel, Switz., and is linked with the three towns by canal The first mention of Colmar is in a chronicle of the Saxon wars of Charlemagne, emperor of the West (800-814). In 1226 it was made an imperial town by the emperor Frederick II and was fortified. In 1632, during the Thirty Years’ War, it was occupied by Sweden. Louis XIII of France took the town under his protection in 1635, and it later became part of France. It was twice annexed by Germany: from 1871 to 1919 and again during World War II. Its Alsatian Renaissance houses, fountains, and ancient churches have made it a centre of tourism. The Musee d’Unterlinden, formerly a convent, houses the 16th-century lsenheim Altarpiece, the master work of the German religious painter Matthias Grunewald. The home of the sculptor of the Statue of Liberty in New York City, Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, who was born in Colmar in 1834, is a museum. Pop. (1975 prelim.) 67,400 48°05’ N, 7°22’ Fmap, France 7: COLNEmarket town and borough (1895), county of Lancashire, England, on the River Colne, a tributary of the Calder, Coal, flagstone, and slate have all been worked there, and the town is also a centre of cotton fabric manufacture. The Perpendicular-style parish church of St. Bartholomew dates largely from 1515. Colne also possesses a notable Anglo- Indian museum. Pop. (1971) 18,94053° 52’ N, 2°09’ WCOLOBATHRISTIDAEfamily of insects of the or               congenital fissure in the eye. Frequently several structures are fissured: the choroid (the pigmented middle layer of the wall of the eye), the retina (the light-sensitive layer of tissue that lines the back and sides of the eye), the ciliary body (the source of the aqueous humour and the site of the ciliary muscle, by which the curvature of the crystalline lens is flattened for far vision), and the iris (the pigmented ring of tissue visible around the pupil). The fissure may extend to the head of the optic nerve. Colobomata may also be confined to individual structures of the eye. Fissures in the retina cause blind spots (scotomata), and a coloboma in the optic nerve also seriously affects vision.COLOBUS (monkey): see guereza             COLOCASIA ESCULENTA (PLANT): SEE ARALES. COLOCYNTHalso called BITTER APPLE and BITTER CUCUMBER (citrullus colocynthis), a hairy- stemmed climbing vine of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae), native to the Mediterranean region. The colocynth has small, pale greenish-yellow flowers, forked tendrils, hairy, deeply cut leaves, and rounded yellow or green fruits that have a bitter taste. The plant is cultivated in some areas for the cathartic quality of its fruits. COLOGNE4:861, German KOLN, river port, and the largest city in the Land (state) of Nordrhcin-westfalen, West Germany. It lies mainly on the left bank of the Rhine in the lowland plain below Bonn. Administrative annexations in 1974 of surrounding communities enlarged the city’s population by nearly a quarter, to slightly more than 1,000,000 persons, making it West Germany’s fourth largest city. Pop. (1975 est.) 1.022,075. The text article covers the history of Cologne, its topography, transportation, demography, architectural features, economy, educational facilities, and cultural life and recreation. 50°56’ N, 6°59’ EREFERENCES in other text articles: Adenauer’s early political career 1:86hAlberlus Magnus’ life and philosophy 1:430cbook publishing history 15:224fbuilding design temperature, tables 1 and 3 8:713Claudius I and urbanization 4:697aelectronic music developments 6:674ffoundation during Roman period 15:797b Gropius’ building design and influence 8: location on the Rhine 15:807b: map 806map, Federal Republic of Germany 8:47medieval population changes 8:86dNordrhein Westfalen’s structured administration 13:144cpopulation change 1870-1925 map 6:237Severin in Bridge construction 3:187cstoneware pottery production 14:909a COLOGNEor EAU DE COLOGNE, in perfumery, scented solution usually consisting of alcohol and about 2-6 percent perfume concentrate. Originally. eau de cologne was a mixture of oranges, combined with such substances as lavender and neroli (orange flower oil); toilet waters were less concentrated forms of other types of perfume. The two terms, cologne and toilet water, however, have come to be used interchangeably first commercial production in Cologne 4:861c passim to perfume preparation and usage 5:198a COLOGNE, UNIVERSITY OFsee Koln, Universitat zu.            COLOGNO MONZESEtown, Milano province, Lombardy region, northern Italy. A northeastern suburb of Milan, it has chemical and silkworm-breeding industries. Pop. (1974 est.) mun., 48,16145°32’ N, 9° 17’ E COLOMANcalled KONYVES KALMAN, literally COLOMAN THE POSSESSOR OF BOOKS (b. C. 1070–d. Feb. 3, 1116), king of Hungary from 1095 who pursued expansionist policies and stabilized and improved the internal order of Hungary. Coloman was the natural son of King Geza I by a Greek concubine. King Laszlo, his uncle, would have made him a monk, but Coloman refused, eventually escaping to Poland. On Laszlo’s death (1095), Coloman returned to Hungary and seized the crown, His legitimately born half brother, Almos, continued to plot against the usurpation until 1113, when Coloman imprisoned him and his infant son, Bela, and had them blinded. Though his accession to the throne was irregular, Coloman was a wise and just ruler. He permitted the crusaders, under the leadership of Godfrey of Bouillon, to cross his territory and won considerable fame throughout Europe for this diplomatic gesture. He continued his predecessor’s policy of trying to secure a seaboard for Hungary. In 1097 he made good Hungary’s claim to Croatia by overthrowing King Petar Svacic, and by 1102 he controlled Daltnatia, though these acquisitions led to a deterioration of relations with other major powers in the area. It was as a legislator and administrator, however, that Coloman was greatest. One of the most learned sovereigns of his time, he was also one of the most statesmanlike. Under him the feudal system was consolidated in Hungary, a new code of law was enacted, and the harsh laws of Laszlo were softened. He is noted particularly for enacting a law forbidding trials of witches, whose existence he denied Croatian national development 2:619breign and territorial expansion 9:31a COLOMB, PHILIP HOWARD (1831-99 British naval officer and historian who was an innovator in steam warship tactics and the inventor of an improved system of naval signals.COLOMB-BECHAR(Algeria): COLOMBE, (b. c. 1430, Brittany–d. c. 1512, Tours, Touraine), the last important Gothic sculptor in France. Little is known of his life, and none of his early works survives. His masterpiece is the tomb (1502-07) of Francis II of Brittany and his consort, Marguerite of Foix, in the cathedral of Nantes. The general design of the tomb was the work of the sculptor Jean Perreal, but Colombe executed the work. The reclining effigies and the figures of the four Virtues on the corners of the tomb show little influence of the Burgundian Gothic style or of the art of the Italian Renaissance. Instead, they stem from the serene late Gothic art produced in the Loire Valley of France.The only other work definitely attributable to Colombe is a marble relief, “St. George and the Dragon” (1508-09; Louvre, Paris) This work exhibits the influence of the Italian tional organization, but the careful attention to minute detail and the imaginative treatment of the dragon reveal the artist’s Gothic roots. COLOMBESnorthwestern industrial suburb of Paris, France, 3.4 mi (5.5 km) from the arterial motorway around the city. Covering 3 sq mi (8 sq km) and situated in the Hauts-de-Seine departenienl, it is known particularly for a sports stadium, built for the 1924 Olympic Games, which has 65,000 seats. Henrietta Maria of England died in 1669 on her estate outside the original village of Colombes. Pop. (latest census) 80,224. 48°55’ N, 2° 15’ E. Paris metropolitan area map 13:1005             COLOMBIA4:863, republic of northwestern South America, bordered by the Caribbean Sea (north), Venezuela and Brazil (east), Peru and Eeuador (south), the Pacific Ocean (west), and Panama (northwest). The text article covers Colombia’s landscape, people and population, economy, transportation, administration and social conditions, cultural life and institutions, and prospects for the REFERENCES in other text articlescommerce, industry, and miningcoal production and reserves, table 5 4:781gemstone mining and gem values 7: gold products and production 8:237f; table 239petroleum reserves and production statistics tables 14:175culture and educationcourtship dance origins and types 1:676aIndian artifact evaluation 1:688geconomics, finance. and currencyforeign aid from OECD countries, table 1 7:522gross domestic product by sector 17:99d; table 98gross national debt percentage, table4 15:193governmentarmed forces statistics table 2: Bogota social and political features 2:1183cland reform effects 10:641dSouth American political divisions map 17:98physical geographyAndes geographical and human features 1:858c; illus. 856Andes mountain range division 19: Andes physiography and climates 17:80fCretaceous rock types and sequence, table 2 5:248llanos physiography 11:5a; map, South America 17: mountain geological features 12:590hTriassic sedimentary basin 18:694f; mappopulation and demographyChristian denominational demography map 4:459urban population ratio table 16:26social issueshealth service expenditures and ratios, tables 1 and 2 15:207Indian resistance to modernization 3: COLOMBIA, HISTORY OF 4:874The Spanish viceroyalty of Nueva Granada (New Granada) established its independence in 1819 under the revolutionary leadership of Simon Bolivar. The next decade saw the political breakdown of Gran Colombia (the short-lived republic composed of what are now the nations of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, and Venezuela) into smaller political units, with Colombia, in nearly its present form (it retained control of Panama), emerging by 1830. The text article deals with Colombia’s attempts to develop an economic and social structure and with the more than a century of civil strife that ensued before some stability was reached in the late 1960s. Contributing to the long-term era of violence and social upheaval were class divisions, anticlericalism, loss of land ownership by the Indian masses, and conflict between the Liberal and Conservative parties. Under Conservative rule, a new constitution was adopted in 1886, and the party remained in power until 1930. Intermittent armed conflict reached its peak in the War of a Thousand Days (1899-1903), and it was in this state of national distress that Colombia ceded Panamanian independence. Colombia’s economy expanded after 1905, but discontent in the Great Depression returned the Liberal Party to power in 1930. Attempts to sustain prosperity were unsuccessful, but initial steps toward agrarian reform, ultimately attained during the presidency of Carlos Lleras Restrepo in the late 1960s, were taken. Renewed violence, with the return of the Conservatives to office in 1946, led to a coup by Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla in 1953; his government, in turn, was toppled by another coup in 1957. After 1966, with the election of Lleras Restrepo and his successors, Misael Pastrana and Alfonso Lopez Michelsen, the economy continued to expand and the pattern of disruption was confined to minor skirmishes. See also Latin America and the Caribbean, colonial REFERENCES in other text articlesBogota settlement and development 2:1183dBolivar and the independence movement 2:1206e

Indian adaptation to other cultures 3: jewelry of the Quimbaya treasure 10:181bnew tribal religious movements 18: Panama Canal construction problems 3: Panama Canal controversy 18:982hPanama political development 3:1116fPeru boundary dispute 14:135fRoosevelt’s acquisition of Panama Canal Zone 15:1143fVenezuelan autonomy and independence 19: RELATED ENTR1ES in the Ready Reference and Index: Bidlack Treaty; Gran Colombia: Thousand Days, War of a COLOMBIAN ABYSSAL submarine topographical feature of the Caribbean Sea, the deepest and flattest portion of the Colombian Basin, It is continuous with the Venezuelan Abyssal Plain, to the east, but is separated from it by the Beata Ridge; maximum depth 13,986 ft (4,263 m). 13°00’ N, 76°00’ WAtlantic Ocean floor features map 2:295 COLOMBIAN BASINdepression in the Caribbean Sea. 13°00’ N, 75°00’ WCaribbean Sea physiography 3:907e; map    COLOMBIERE, CLAUDE DE (b. Peb. 2, 1641, St. Symphorien d’Ozon, Fr.–d. Feb. 15, 1682, Paray-le-Monial), Jesuit who assisted St. Margaret Mary Alacoque in establishing the devotion to the Sacred Heart. Educated by the Jesuits of Lyon, he entered their novitiate at Avignon in 1658, and subsequently studied theology at the College de Clermont, Paris. After ordination he was appointed to the chair of rhetoric in the College de la Trinite at Lyon (1670 73). In 1675 he became superior of the Jesuit collcgc at Paray-le-Monial, where he spiritually directed Margaret Mary, In 1676 he was appointed court preacher to Mary of Modena, who had become duchess of York by marriage with the future King James 11 of England, and took up his residence in St. James’s Palace, London. Falsely accused by a former protege of complicity in Titus Oates’ “popish plot,” he was imprisoned for five weeks and when released was obliged to return to France, where he died an invalid under the care of Margaret Mary. He was beatified by Pope Pius XI on June 16, 1929 Columbiere’s complete works (including four volumes of sermons, one of sermon notes, and one of correspondence) were published in six volumes at Grenoble, Fr. (1900-01). COLOMBO4:877, capital of Sri Lanka (formerly Ceylon), situated on the west coast of the island, is one of the principal Indian Ocean ports. Pop. (1971) 562,162 The text article covers the site of Colombo, its history, physiography, climate, health facilities, population, administration, economy, suburbs, transport system, educational facilities, and cultural resources. 6° 56’ N, 79°51’ Ereferences in Ceylonese colonialism and independence 4:5h; map 4district area and population table 17:522map, Sri Lanka 17:520 COLOMBO, BARTOLOMEOin Spanish bartolome colon (c. 1445 c. 1514), Italian explorer, the brother of Christopher Columbus, founded the city of Santo Domingo (in present Dominican Republic) in 1496 Hispaniola goveinoiship unauthorized 4:940hSanto Domingo foundation 16: 234a COLOMBO, MATEO REALDO (b. 1516?, Cremona, Italy–d. 1559, Rome), anatomist and surgeon, anticipated the English anatomist William Harvey, the discoverer of general blood circulation, in clearly describing the pulmonary circulation, or passage of blood between The heart and the lungs. At the University of Padua (1540), he studied medicine under the great Renaissance anatomist Andreas Vesalius, succeeding the master as professor of surgery in 1543. When Vesalius” discoveries began to threaten classic medical doctrines, however, Colombo became one of his most violent critics. In 1546 Colombo became the first professor of anatomy at the University of Pisa and, in a similar position at the Sapienza, or Papal University, in Rome (1548-59), was surgeon to Pope Julius III. De re anatomica (1559), his only formal written work, includes several important original observations derived from his dissections on both living animals and human cadavers. His descriptions of the mediastinum (organs and tissues within the thoracic cavity, excluding the lungs), pleura (membrane surrounding the lungs), and peritoneum (membrane surrounding the abdominal organs) are the best made to that time. Most important, however, he correctly described general heart action, stating that blood is received into the ventricles during diastole, or relaxation of the heart muscle, and expelled from them during systole, or contraction. He clearly outlined circulation of venous blood from the right ventricle, through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, whence it emerges bright red after mixture with a “spirit” in the air, and returns to the left ventricle through the pulmonary vein. Although pulmonary circulation had been espoused clearly as early as the 13th century, accounts of it were unknown to contemporary science, and Colombo was recognized by his colleagues and by William Harvey as the discoverer of the phenomenon. Colombo’s repudiation of the popular beliefs that blood flows across the septum (muscular partition separating the left and right chambers of the heart) and that the pulmonary vein is filled with air began a general departure from the classic physician Galen’s anatomical principles, a trend that characterized the beginning of modern medicine.COLOMBO PLANarrangement for discussing economic development plans and facilitating technical and financial assistance for development projects in south and southeast Asia. It was established at Colombo, Ceylon, in 1951 as a result of discussions by the governments of India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, and Great Britain. The United Stales, Japan, and a number of Southeast Asian countries also joined later Development planning and problems are discussed at an annual meeting. Although there is a continuing body that deals wilh technical assistance, there is no central fund from which loans or grants are allocated. Instead, financing of development projects is arranged bilaterally between individual governments or with the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. former British colonics participation 9:738b Colondepartment, northeastern Honduras, bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea. The rainy lowlands of the 3,427-sq-mi (8,875-sq-km) department are broken by northern outliers of the central highlands, including the Sierra de la Esperanza. Most of the popula tion is concentrated in the fertile and relatively dry valley of the Aguan River (q.v.) and on the coastal plain in the northwest. Pine savanna on poor soils in the east and mixed hardwoods elsewhere provide lumber for domestic use and for export. Crop production, mostly in the northwest, includes rice, manioc, sweet potatoes, and bananas, which are exported through the port of Trujillo (q.v.), the departmental capital, and Puerto Castilla. Pop. (1970 est.) 57,000. area and population table 8:1057map. Honduras 8:1058 COLONprovince, on the northern (Caribbean) coast of Panama, lying both cast and west of the Canal Zone. Formed in 1855, it occupies an area of 2,882 sq mi (7,465 sq km), including the intendancy of San Bias (1,238 sq mi [3,206 sq km]), which is rugged in the south, where it is crossed by a northern spur of the Andean Cordillera, and comprises tropical hills and plains in the north and cast. Two main rivers, the Chagres and the Cocle del Norte, drain the province. In the interior are considerable unexploited mineral deposits (mercury, lead, iron, manganese, and coal). The population, mostly urban, is concentrated near the Canal Zone. Industry and services are primarily associated with the canul and are in and around the provincial capital, Colon, and the adjuining city of Cristobal. There is some agricultural activity, also near the Canal 7.one–mainly the cultivation of bananas, cacao, and coconuts, and stock raising. Por tobclo (q.v), 20 mi (32 km) east of Colon city, was during the colonial period a strong’y fortified town at the north end of the old Gold Road. Pop. (1970) 134,286. area and population table 13:942 COLONcity, eastern Matanzas province, west central Cuba. It lies on an inland plain where sugarcane, fruits, and tobacco are grown and poultry and cattle are raised. The area also yields honey. Tobacco factories and a fruit dehydration plant are located in the city. Co- l(5n lies on the central highway and a major railroad. Pop. (1970 prelim.) 25,986. 22°43’ N, 80°54’ map, Cuba 5:350 COLONcapital, Colon province, central Panama. Founded in 1850 at the Atlantic (northern) terminus of the original Panama railway, the settlement was first called Aspinwall after one of the builders of the railway, Colon is the Spanish form of Columbus; the name of the twin port city of Cristobal, in the Cunal Zone, is Spanish for his Christian name. After completion of the railway in 1855, Colon overshadowed the older Caribbean ports of Panama, and with the first plans for the isthmian canal it took on additional prestige. Built on swampy Manzanillo Island, the city was notoriously unhcalthful until Col. William C. Gorgas, the sanitation genius of the canal construction, gave it a new system of waterworks and sewerage, as well as complete drainage of the surrounding swamps. The great portworks and docks built by the U.S. government at Cristobal, now virtually a suburb, make Colon one of the most important ports of the Caribbean Sea. The city’s population is largely Negro, chiefly descendants of labourers imported from the British West Indies during construction on the canal. A busy tourist centre, Colon contains a customhouse, large public buildings, churches, and several modern hotels. It is on the Transisthmian Highway, which runs to Panama City, and it has an airport. Pop. (1970) 67,695. 9°22’ N, 79’54’ Wmap, Panama 13:941 COLON

specifically, that segment constituting most of the length of the large intestine in mammals; often used synonymouslywith the term large intestine or in reference to a corresponding region of the vertebrate gut. In man, the coon extends from the end of the small intestine and cecum up the right side of the abdomen (ascending coon), across to the left side (transverse colon), down the left side (descending colon), and loops (sigmod flexure or colon) to join the rectum. In man the colon has no digestive function. Its purpose is to lubricat waste products, absorb remaining fluids, and store waste products until they are ready to be passed from the body. Most absorption occurs in the ascending and transverse regions, where the liquid material ived from the small intestine is dehydrated to form a fecal mass. The feces consist of unused food remnants, bacteria and fungus cells, dead cells sloughed oil from the upper portions of the gut tract, and by-products formed during the process of digestion. The inner wall of the colon consists of a mucous membrane that absorbs the fluids and gives off mucus to lubricate the waste materials. The deeper muscle layer is composed of circular and longitudinal muscles. Circular muscles produce the mild churning and mixing motion of the intestine, while the longitudinal ones create the strong massive muscle contractions that actually move the food. Each section of the colon looks and acts like the pleated bellows of an accordion. When the longitudinal muscles of one region contract, the colon section is reduced to about naif its usual length; when the muscles are relaxed the pleats arc more spaced and extended. It takes from 18 to 24 hours for food to pass through all three, colon sections. Distention of the colon docs not usually cause pain but may produce discomfort. Spasmodic contractions, however, can be exceedingly painful. Medical problems associated with the colon range from constipation, diarrhea, gas discomfort, and colitis (inflammation of the colon), to the more serious megacolon (enlarged colon) and canccr. See also large intestine; sigmoid colon. canccr site and prognosis 3:768a; table 767digestive system diseases and treatment 5:800hdigestive upsets and parasite activity 5: human digestive system anatomy 5:794etumour growth rate table 8:442vertebrate digestive system comparisons 5.786g COLON, ARCHIPIELAGO DEisland territory of Ecuador comprising the Galapagos Islands (q.v.) administered through Guayas province. The capital is Puerto Baquerizn Moreno.0°30’ S, 90° 30’ area andpopulationtable6:288map,Ecuador 6:286                       COLON,CRISTOBALseeColumbus,Christopher.COLON, DIEGOsee Columbus, Diego. also called CHONGON. PAJAN, and PUCA, located in Ecuador. volcanic, origin and geologic age 6: COLON CLASSIFICATIONa system of library organization develo|jed by the Indian librarian S.R. Ranganathan in 1933. It is general rather than specific in nature, and it can create complex or new categories through the use of facets, or colons. The category of dental surgery, for example, symbolized as I. 214:4:7, is created by combining the letter L for medicine, the number 214 for teeth, the number 4 for diseases, and the number 7 lor surgery. In Colon classification, there are 108 main classes (previously there were 33) and 10 generalized classes (broadly divided between the humanities and sciences), which are represented by a mixed notation of Arabic numerals and roman and Greek letters. Each main class comprises five fundamental facets or groups: personality, matter, energy, space, and time. Ranganathan’s main contribution to classification was the notion of these fundamental facets, or categories; since they are the essence of all subjects, a classification scheme must allow for and express them. Instead of schedules of numbers for each topic. Colon classification uses series of short tables from which component numbers are chosen and linked by colons to form a whole. The book number is an integral part of the call number, a departure from Dewey or Library of Congress systems. Each main class has its appropriate facets and focuses; e.G., literature has language and form. In addition, there are four floating tables that correspond to subdivisions; e.g., form, geography, time, and language. Further expansion of the tables is allowed through colon addition or omission (if the subject cannot be expanded). The collection of the University of Madras, India, was utilized in the creation of Colon library science theory and practice 10:869f COLONELthe highest officer rank below the general officer grades in most armies or below brigadier in the British services. A colonel was traditionally the commanding officer of a regiment. In air forces that use the same titles of rank as the army, such as the U.S. Air Forcc, a colonel’s command is usually a group; the comparable grade in the Royal Air Force is group captain. When not exercising command of a regiment, group, or equivalent formation, a colonel is generally placed in a senior staff or administrative post.COLON FREE ZONESPANISH ZONA LIBRE DE COLON, AREA OF PANAMA COMMERCIAL AND TRADE IMPORTANCE 13:943F COLONItenant farmers of the late Roman Empire and the Middle Ages. They were drawn from impoverished small free farmers, partially emancipated slaves, and barbarians sent to work as agricultural labourers among landed proprietors. They paid for the hinds they rented in money, produce, or service. Some may have become coloni in order to gain protection from the proprietor against the slate tax collector or against invaders and aggressive neighbours. Although technically freemen, the coloni were bound to the soil by debts that were heritable and by laws limiting their freedom of movement. By AD 332, landlords were permitted to chain coloni suspected of planning to leave. Coloni were forbidden to transfer their property without consent of the landlord and to sue the landlord except for increasing their rent. The colonus could not lose his land as long as he paid the rent, but he was forbidden to leave or change his occupation. If the land was sold he went with it; his children held it after him on the same terms. The descendants of the coloni, along with other dependent peasants, became the serfs of the Middle Ages. Constantino’s social policies 3:549dserfdom in medieval Europe 16: social structure rules 6:1119b     COLONIAdepartment, southwestern Uruguay. bounded on the west by the Uruguay River, on the. south and southwest by the Rio de la Plata. The territory, 2,372 sq mi (6,144 sq km), has both historical and economic importance. Colonia del Sacramento (q.v.), the capital, was the first permanent settlement in what is now Uruguay. The Spanish eventually moved their defense headquarters to Montevideo, a more strategic location founded in 1726. Truck farming, dairying (first introduced by Swiss colonists), and textiles make Colonia one of the most affluent and densely populated departments in Uruguay. Latest census 105,350. area and population table 18:1096COLONIA AGRIPPINENSIS (West Germany): see Cologne COLONIA DEL SACRAMENTOcapital, Colonia department, southwestern Uruguay. It sits on a peninsula that juts into the Rio de la Plata across from Buenos Aires, Argentina. Founded in 1680 by Portuguese soldiers and later captured by Spanish forces, Colonia still contains numerous colonial buildings, which arc unusual in Uruguay.Tourism provides much income for Colonia and for Real de San Carlos, a nearby summer resort. The city is also the commercial and manufacturing centre for the surrounding agricultural and pastoral hinterlands, which yield mainly cereals and vegetables; dairying is also important. Its port is active, shipping, among other products, gravel and sand from nearby quarries. Colonia is linked to Buenos Aires by ferry, hydrofoil, and air, and to Montevideo by highway and railroad. Pop, (latest census) 12,839 34°28’ S, 57051’ Wmap, Uruguay 18:1095 COLONIA GUELL CHURCH (1898-1915), at Santa Coloma de Cervello, Spain, church designed and executed by Antonio Gaudi. Gaudi’s design illus. 7:957COLONIALBENT (botany): see bent grass. COLONIALISM4:879. Modern colonialism, the scope of the subject under this heading, began in the 15th century with the rise of the modern nation-state and with the beginnings of European exploration and discovery in Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English built major colonial empires from the 16th to the 18th century. The late 19th and early 20th centuries, called the age of new imperialism, witnessed the revival of the race for colonies. In the course of the 20th century, most colonial areas have gained formal political independence. After World War II, however, the term neocolonialism came to refer to the informal economic ties and the predominance of culture and values of the former colonial powers by which they continued to influence the newly independent states. TEXT ARTICLE covers: European expansion, 1450-1763 4:880aAntecedents of European expansion 880aPortuguese discoveries and conquests 881aSpanish discoveries and conquests 881ePortugal’s seaborne empire 882cSpain’s American empire 882hEffects of the discoveries and empires 883eThe Dutch 884fThe French 886eThe English 887eMercantilism 888cSlave trade 888hColonial wars of the 18th century 889eEuropean expansion since 1763 890bEuropean colonial activity. 1763-c. 1875 891cThe new imperialism (c. 1875-1914) 894ePenetration of the West in Asia 897aPartition of Africa 899fWorld War I and the interwar period (1914-39) 902dThe aftermath of World War II 903dREFERENCES in other text articles AfricaAngola’s native assimilation curb by Portugal 1: Bismarck’s motives for acquisitions in Africa 2:1082hCentral African colonies 3:1093dCongo response to Western influence 4:1123aDahomey economic carry-over problem 5:422gde Gaulle’s gradual decolonization of Africa 7:964ddestruction of traditional cultures by Europeans 1:283aEast African division, development, and political crises 6:98dEast African westernization 6:l14eeducation status and purpose 6: European scramble over South Africa 17:286fEuropean settlement patterns 1:205bFaidherbe’s rule in Senegal 7:143fGuinea Coast economic links to Europe 8;474dItalian expansion in Africa 9:1164eKaunda’s struggle for Zambian freedom 10:406aKenyatta’s struggle for Kenyan independence 10:430gLagos slave trade suppression 10:594hlinguistic aftermath in Africa 10:669fLugard’s career in Africa 11:176cMadagascar colonics and protectorate 11:277fMozambique’s significance as Portuguese province 12:592fNasser and the Free Officers 12:844fNorth African policies of France 13:l62fPortuguese East African trade control 6:92e; maps 94Rhodes’s South African career 15:811eSalisbury and the Anglo-French dispute over Africa 16: Shaka Zulu’s weakening of African tribes 16:615asouthern African European development and exploitation 17:276g; map 287southern African postwar altitudes 17:295aSudan’s rule by British 13:113eWest Africa European political and economic control 19:765hAmericaAmerican Indian policies 13:220fBalboa’s explorations 2:610fBrazil’s social and political aspects 3:144d British colonial charters in America 5: British Columbia’s settlement 3:296hCanada’s settlement 3:733hCentral American and northernAndeun cultural disintegration 3:1108bChamplain’s explorations and colonial claims 4:29cCharles III of Spain’s foreign policy 4:57aChristianity, slavery, and human rights 4:513bColumbus’ New World voyages 4:937b; map Cones and Spanish expeditions 5:194dCuba’s relationship with Spain 5:356eeducation systems in colonies 6:356aFlorida under Spain, France, and England 7:424c France’s Canadian and Caribbean holdings and trade 7: French expansion under Frontenae 7:746eHaiti’s commercial exploitation 8:550hHaiti’s war of independence 18:536aHispuniola’s early Spanish imperial role 5:948hIberian control of South American immigration 17:94fLatin-American colonial history 10:691cMexican colonial history 12:79bMiddle American cultural change 12:166fNew Brunswick British rule history 12:1080f New York City’s commercial importance 13: New York state’s settlement and growth 13:21fNorth American British exploration and settlement 18:946hNorth American European settlement 13:194fPenn’s religious principles and colonial activity 14:24hProtestant exclusion from New World missions by Portugal and Spain 4:464c Puritan colonies in America 15: South American indigenous social change 17:119gSpanish policy in the New World 17:424cSurinam history and settlement 17:825fUnited States’ rule in Puerto Rico 15: Utah exploration by Europeans 18: 1101gVenezuelan resources and Spanish colonialism 19:68dVitoria social justice plea 19:493cwork organization in colonies 19:938b AsiaAlbuquerque’s Indian conquests 1:430gAsian political geography 2:177d passim to 179aBuddhism’s role in Asian nationalism 3:413bBurmese difficulties under British 3:513gCeylon under Portuguese, Dutch, and English 4:5hChinese open foreign policy under Li Hung-chang 10:970hClive’s career in India 4:741h Coen and Dutch Last Indies settlement 4: Curzon’s viceroyship of India 5:375ada Gama’s Eastern explorations 7:860gDalhousie’s Indian westernization policy 5:438hDjakarta opposition to Dutch East India Company 5:920d beconomic benefits of European contacts 2: fragmentation by West 2:199hIndian art’s interaction with the West 17:172aIndian colonial history 9:392e; map 408 Indochinese communist movement 8: Indonesian colonial history 9:483hIran’s diplomatic position in Russo-British rivalry 9:860cMalayan colonial history 11:366bManchuria control by Russia and Japan 11:436hNehru and tndian independence 12: Ottoman Empire dismemberment 2:256aPitt’s reform of Indian affairs 14:478hRussian annexation of Siberia 9:600fRussian eastward territorial expansion 16:66a; map 35Russian Turkistan invasion motivation 18:796cShantung Peninsula exploitation by Europeans andJapanese 16: Southeast Asian cultural response 17:231gSukarno’s use of Japan against Dutch 17783gThat relations with Western powers 16:721a passim to 723cVietnam’s colonial history 1:125dVietnamese culture curb by French rule 19:144bYunnan exploitation by European powers 19:1113fAustralia and the PacificAustralian Aborigine disintegration 2:428gAustralian colonization 2:413aOceanian-European contact and effects 13:444dPacific islands’ European exploitation 13: agricultural technology dissemination l:337dAntarctic territorial claims 1:963aBritish Empire growth and consolidations 3:301hBritish 19th century foreign policy 3:271dCatholic missions cultural effects 4:505bChristian mission sponsorship 4:526ecivil service personnel problems in new independent states 4:670ccontemporary attitude and U.S. possessions 18:1003gcultural effects of missions 15:619hculture diffusion role 8:1155ccustoms unions and economic integration 5:379geconomic aspects of colonialism 6:224fElizabethan voyages of exploration 3:227aenvironmental and conservation effects of European technology 5:42f European treaties affecting colonial possessions 6:1095aEuropean use of new commodities 18:36eguerrilla warfare as protest weapon 8:459cHakluyt’s colonization espousal 8: higher educational influence outside Europe 8:861h passim to 863bhigher education in developing nations 8: Islam and European expansion 9:936flegal systems and profession establishment 10:780hmessianic reactions of primitive groups 11:1020bmodern empires and their disintegration 14:707gnationalism’s development after World War I 12:852gpacifistic imperialism 13: Portuguese discoveries and overseas possession 3 14:868fpostwar U.S. supporting role 9:774aracial distinctions and racism development 15:362aracial stratification impact 16:954grefugees of Africa and Asia 15:569g Roman Catholic missions 15:1000dSeychelles exploration and settlement 16:611cslavery and colonial indenture 16:854hsocial and cultural change influenced 16: social change generation 16:986gsocial mobility effects 16:952cSpanish imperial decline 17:434fspice trade market in Europe 17:503cSyrian and Palestinian history 17:954h: map 956UN’s concern for territorial autonomy 18:903c COLONIALITYin animals, the aggregation of a number of individuals, usually of the same species, into a social group. Many biologists restrict the term to geographically fixed aggregations, such as termite societies and colonies of nesting birds; others consider that every social group may be viewed as a colony. In either sense, the colony may number from a few individuals to several million. animal social behaviour patterns 16: bacteria growth features 2:574b: illus. 569Chiroptera social behaviour 4:431ghymenopteran insect social organization 9:126glife-span of non-aging organisms 10:911dprotozoan characteristic aggregations 15: 121dtermite division of labour 9:1050fCOLONIAL PINEsee Moreton Bay Bine. COLONIAL PREFERENCE (tariffs): see imperial preference.COLONIAL REBELLIONsee national liberation movement. COLONIAL THEORYtheory stating that the origin of multicellular animals was from a spherical, hollow, colonial, flagellated organism. metazoan evolution and ancestral forms 13:725e    COLONNAa Roman noble family pre-eminent from the Middle Ages. Started in the 1060s us « branch of the House of Tusculum, with extensive lands in Latium (Lazio), the family was already represented in Rome by cardinals and senators in the 13th century. Their rivals for power were the Caetani–against whose pope (Boniface VIII) Sciarra Colonna supported the French king’s agents in 1303–and, more lastingly, the Orsini–whose quarrel with them led to the popular dictatorship of Cola di Rienzo and to Rienzo’s bloody victory over the Colonna at the Porta San Lorenzo in 1347. Oddone Colonna, pope as Martin V (1417-31), increased the family’s power by grants of lands in southern Italy and in the Papal States. Subsequent popes challenged this power, but late in the 16th century the family and the Holy See became reconciled.    COLONNA, ODDONESEE MARTIN V. COLONNA, SCIARRA (d. 1329), member of a distinguished noble Roman family, was a bitter enemy of Pope Boniface VIII. He wAs ex-communicuted and deprived of some of his estates but with French help took Boniface prisoner (1303). He was a supporter of the Holy Roman emperor Louis IV the Bavarian. COLONNA, VITTORIA (b. 1492, Marino, Italy– d. Feb. 25, 1547. Rome), poet, less important tor her poetry than for her personality and her associations with famous contemporaries, particularly Michelangelo. Of a noble family, Vittoria Colonna married Ferdinando Francesco d’Avalos, marchcse di Pescara, in 1509. Her husband seems to have spent most of their married life on military campaigns; nevertheless, when he died in 1525 she began a series of poems in his memory, the best modern edition of which is Rime spirituali (1882; Eng. trans., The “In Memorium” of Italy: A Century of Sonnets from the Poems of Vittoria Colonna, 1895). She also wrote much religious poetry, but her life has drawn more interest than her work. Learned and intelligent, of a religious and emotional nature, Vittoria was much respected by the poet Ludovico Ariosto and a close friend of other literary figures, such as the poet Jacopo Sannazzaro, the Humanist Pietro Bembo, and the renowned author of the etiquette manual Il cortegiano (The Courtier), Baldassare Castiglione. as well as several contemporary religious reformers. Her most famous platonic association, however, was with Michelangelo, whom she met in Rome in 1538 and with whom she exchanged many letters and philosophical sonnets. Michelangelo was at her bedside when she died and in his touching memorial sonnet, “To Vittoria Colonna” (.trans, by Longfellow), wrote that on her death “Nature, that never made so fair a face,/ Remained ashamed, and tears were in all eyes In addition to the Rime spirituali, Vittoria Colonna’s work has been published in Rime e lettere (1860; “Poetry and Letters”) and her correspondence published in full as Carteggio (1889). Michelangelo’s friendship 12.99f COLONNADErow of columns generally supporting a horizontal entablature (q.v.), used either as an independent feature or as part or a building, The earliest colonnades appear in the temple architecture of Classical antiquity, numerous examples of which survive in Greece and Rome. The Greek market hall, or stoa, as seen in Athens is a particularly good illustration of a long colonnade serving a com mercial purpose. Colonnades were much employed in the Baroque and Neoclassical periods, such as the notable colonnade of St. Peter s in Rome, designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini and completed in 1667. COLON TEATROBuenos Aires, Argentina. use and importance 3:450d COLONY, Latin COLONIA, originally, a coast-guard community of Roman citizens. By 200 BC a system of such Roman maritime colonies maintained a guard over the coasts throughout Italy. The Romans preferred this form of coastal defense to the use of a fleet The colonists kept their Roman citizenship because they settled within Roman territory. Their communities were usually too small to form autonomous states like the larger “Latin” colonies (also defensive in purpose and composed mainly of Roman citizens), which were established outside of Roman territory. About 177 BC the Latin colonies as such were abolished, and the former Roman colonics were joined to them to form large citizen colonies (from 2,000 to 5,000 in population). The new colonies acquired considerable local autonomy by being empowered to elect their own magistrates, council, and priests. By the late 2nd century BC, colonies were established not for defensive purposes but to settle landless freemen and veterans on the soil. In the following century, Julius Caesar and Augustus regularized the practice of founding colonies for veterans in conquered territory outside of Italy. The presence of colonists helped to Romanize the local inhabitants, some of whom became amalgamated with colonics and thus acquired Roman citizenship. This policy was maintained until the 2nd century AD. Thenceforth colonia bccame simply the highest rank a community could attain. Colonies were often named for their founders and later benefactors, which often included the emperors. North Africa’s Roman administration 13:150f COLONY of THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE (South Africa): see Cape Colony. COLOPHONancient Ionian Greek city, located about 15 miles northwest of Ephesus, in modern Turkey. Founded by Smyrna, it was a flourishing commercial city in the 8th and 7th centuries BC with its harbour at Nullum. Colophon was ruled by a timocracy (government based on wealth) and was famous for its cavalry and for its luxury; it was the birthplace of the philosopher Xenophanes and the poet Antimachus, Seized by Gyges of Lydia in 665 BC, it was controlled during the Peloponnesian War first by the Persians and then by Athens. In the 3rd ccntury BC, the old city declined in favour of Notium (New Colophon).           COLOPHONin printing, the tail piece, or end purl, of a book, the earliest means by which printers proclaimed the role they had played in the production of a book and, hopefully, set out to establish any rights they might be able to claim as the result of their contribution. Though the use of distinctive printers marks and devices grew from the use of the colophon, the former are not precisely colophons. Before the invention of printing, there were, technically, no books hut only manuscripts copied by band and to order for men and institutions able to pay the cost of the process. The scribe, working for a given man or institution, had no need of a title page to announce his work. He sometimes began with no more elaboration than the phrase, “here begins . . . “ When the invention of printing made it possible for writings to be reproduced in multiple copies and offered for sale, printers gradually added a blank piece of paper at the front of the book to protect the first page from soiling and an identifying phrase at the rear. At first a matter of simple identification, in which the printer announced that he had printed the work at hand at a given place, the colophon soon became a place in which he might praise the book, its own qualities and those of the edition specifically being sold. Some printers used the occasion to condemn simitar editions of the work by other printers. As the colophon grew in importance, it became not uncommon for printers to employ writers specifically to prepare them. In some cases they became nothing less than editorial essays, though most printers retained the earlier use of a simple, identifying monogram, a decorative device, or a brief sentence set into a type design or block. Ultimately, the removal of a part of the content of the colophon to the blank cover page at the front of the work initiated the title page essentially as it is known today. In most countries the colophon remains as no more than a one-sentence statement that the book was printed by a given printer at a given location. In some countries such a minimal statement is required by law. The use of the colophon to declare the typeface, the paper, and the contributions of various crafts has been retained by some printers for some work, history and description 15:226borigins and early use 18:816h COLOPHONY (resin): see rosin.        COLORADOIndian people of the Pacific coast of F.cuador. They live in tropical lowland, where they arc one of the last aboriginal groups. Linguistically the Colorado are related to the neighbouring Cayapa; they have a tradition that they were formerly from the Andean highlands. Their name for themselves is Tatchila or Tsatchcla. The Colorado are fishermen and slash-and-burn agriculturalists. Their staple crop is plantain, but sweet manioc (yuca), yams, cacao, peppers, maize (corn), rice, and other crops are also grown. They fish by stunning or poisoning the fish with a drug extracted from the roots of a native plant. They also hunt and keep some domestic animals. Fewer than 300 Colorado were left in 1970 They lived scattered through the forest in single-famiy houses, consisting usually of thatched roofs supported by posts and lacking walls Clothing was traditional: men wore a knee-length wrup-around kilt and a square of cotton cloth over the shoulders; women wore an ankle-length wrap-around cotton skirt Men covered their entire bodies with red pigment, while women painted only their faces. They practiced some Christian rituals while retaining many traditional beliefs. Inca trade patterns 3:1107gtribal distribution map 3:1107 COLORADO4:906, state of the U.S., admitted to the Union in 1876 as the 38th state. Its western half is in the Rocky Mountains, and it is crossed by the Continental Divide; it has an area of 104,247 sq mi (269.998 sq km) and is bounded by Wyoming and Nebraska (north), by Kansas (east), by Oklaho and New Mexico (south), and by Utah (west). Its capital is Denver. Pop. (1970) 2,207,250. The text article, after a brief overview of the state, covers its history, its people, its economy, and its administration and social conditions. It concludes with a discussion of Colorado’s cultural life and its prospects for the future. REFERENCES in other text articles: area and population, table 1 18:927Great Basin Indian cultures 13:204g: map 205map, United Stales 18: mountain elevation and impression 18:913hSan Luis dune and wind patterns 16:210gTertiary nonmarine sediments 18:153bTriassic continental sediments 18:694g COLORADO DESERTpart of the Sonorun Desert (q.v.), extends southeastward for 164 mi (264 km) from San Gorgonio Pass in southeastern California, U.S., to the Colorado River Delta in northern Mexico. A depressed, arid region, it is bounded by the Pacific coastal rangee (west), the San Bernardino. Cottonwood. Chuckawalla, and Chocolate mountains, and the Colorado River (north through east), and the head of the Gulf of California (south). The typical vegetation is the creosote-bush-desert-shrub association. Shifting sand dunes lie in the northwest and in the Aigodones sand hills in the east. The Salton Sea (q.v.), a brackish-water lake, occupies the Salton Sink depression near the middle of the desert, The productive, irrigated Coachella and Imperial valleys (qq.v.) stretch northwest and southeast from the Salton Sea. Water is supplied through canals from the Colorado River, after which the desert was named. Within the desert are several Indian reservations, the Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge, and popular resorts, such as Halm Springs. 33° 15’ N, 115°15’ Wlocation, climate, and dunes 13: temperature and rainfall comparisons 3:COLORADO FACTIONalso called RED FACTION, 20th-century Argentine liberal political faction. political philosophy and intentions 1:11 50e COLORADOITEmercury tclluride, a mineral. sulfide mineral structure and lustre 17:787b COLORADO NATIONAL MONUMENTin west central Colorado, U.S. just west of Grand Junction near the Colorado River. Established in 1911, it occupies an area of 28 sq mi (73 sq km). Part of the Uncompahgrc Plateau, the monument is known for its colourful wind-eroded sandstone formations, towering monoliths, and steep-walled canyons. Petrified logs and dinosaur fossils have been exposed. Rim Rock Drive skirts the walls of the Red, Ute, No Thoroughfare, and Monument canyons at elevations more than 6,500 ft (1,980 m) above sea level. Features includc Balanced Rock, Coke Ovens, Sentinel Spire, Independence Monument, and Window Rock. Juniper, pinon pine, and wildflowers thrive in the canyons. Deer, foxes, and bobcats are plentiful. 39°04’ N, 108°25’      COLORADO PARTYmajor political party in Uruguay, appealing primarily to the urban population and emphasizing social welfare and other progressive principles. Uruguayan political factional disputes 18: COLORADO region of the U.S. natural characteristics and population 4:907b passim to COLORADO PLATEAUor COLORADO PLATEAUS, basically part of the Rocky Mountain system, extends across the southwestern United States, covering the southeastern half of Utah, extreme western and southwestern Colorado, northwestern New Mcxico, and the northern half of Arizonu. The region, which occupies about 130.000 sq mi (337,000 sq km), is bounded by the Rocky Mountains (north and east), the Great Basin (west), and the Sonoran Desert (south). The plateau is not a plain but is dominated by high mountains, gashed by superb river canyons, scarred with dry gullies and washes, the beds of intermittent streams, varied with great shallow basins, sunken deserts, dreary levels, bold buttes, picturesque mesas, forests, and rare verdant bits of valley. Elevations range from 2,000 ft (600 in) in the Grand Canyon, Arizona, to more than 13,000 ft in the LaSal Mountains, Utah. Erosion by the Colorado River system has carved deep, brilliantly coloured gorges, notably the Grand Canyon, which are geological and scenic wonders. The plateau embraces numerous conservation areas–national parks, national forests, and national monuments–and also many Indian reservations. Poor accessibility and dry climate have impeded much development beyond a tourist nature, but the region has some ranching, mining, and lumbering activities. Arizona’s landform and climate 2: 1gpassim to 2cdesert environment characteristics 5:603aecology, climate, and Indians 17:305d formation features and resources 18:914g passim to 916bgeological evolution and planation 13:l82dgeological forms and feature studies 7:1062eGreat Basin Indian cultures 13:204ghillslope and cliff development 8:878hmap, United States 18:908Rocky Mountain ranges and uplifts 15:967estructure and elevation 14:527cUtah’s physiographic regions 18:1102e COLORADO POTATO BEETLEcommon name for Leptinotarsa decemlineata, also known as the POTATO BUG, a pest that attacks the leaves of potato plants. This leaf beetle, subfamily Chrysomelinae of the family Chrysomelidae (order Coleoptera), is native to western North America and originally fed upon buffalo bur, a wild plant of the potato family the Rocky Mountain region. It began feeding on potatoes as man moved west. By 1874 the beetle had become an important potato pest, spreading wherever potatoes were cultivated. The Colorado potato beetle is hemispherical in shape, about 10 millimetres (⅜ inch) long, and orange-red or yellow in colour, with black stripes on its wing covers (elytra). The female deposits between 300 and 500 eggs on the underside of potato leaves. The red,plump, leaf-feeding larvae pupate underground and are usually not seen until they emerge as adults. Depending on the latitude from one to three generations may occur each year. agricultural uses of pesticides 1:345apest status from new food plant 9: COLORADO Spanish too COLORADO, in south central Argentina. Its major head- streams, the Grande and Barrancas rivers, flow southward from the eastern flanks of the Andes and meet north of Buta Ranquil, in Neuquen province, to form the Cclorado. The river flows generally east-southeastward across northern Patagonia as a border for several provinces. Its lower course crosses southern Buenos Aires province and splits into two arms, which flow into the Atlantic Ocean south of Bahia Blanca. The total length of the Colorado is about 530 mi (850 km). 39° 50’ S. 62°08’ Wmap, Argentina 1:1136 COLORADO RIVER4:910, major river of North America, rising in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and flowing generally west and south for 1,440 mi (2,320 km) to the Gulf of California. Its drainage basin comprises 244,000 sq mi (632,000 sq km) in seven states. The text article covers the features of its course and the natural environment, as well as the human uses for irrigation, hydroelectricity, and recreation 31°45’ N, 114°40’ WREFERENCES in other text articles: drainage area and sediment load, table 1 16:474fluvial rate of degradation 7:444ggorge features and development problems 18:915fGrand Canyon’s natural history 8:277dGreat Basin drainage system 2:750amap, Mexico 12:68map, United States 18:908meandering course features, illus. 5 15:881sediment yield variations and causes 16:476f; illus. silt yield comparison with major rivers 8:1130dUtah’s major drainage areas 18: Yuma Indian dependence on floods 17:306f COLORADO RIVERrises in west Texas, U.S., on the Llano Estacado (Staked Plains) in Dawson County, north of Lamesa, and flows generally southeast by Colorado City through rolling prairie and rugged hill and canyon country, past Austin and across the coastal plain to enter Matagorda Bay (an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico) after a course of 600 miles (965 km). The river, the largest entirely within Texas, drains an area of about 39,900 sq mi (103,340 sq km) and receives several prongs of the Concho River, the Pecan Bayou, and the Llano, Pedernales, and San Saba rivers. It is the site of important flood-control, power, irrigation, and recreational projects–Buchanan, Inks, Lyndon B. Johnson, Marble Falls, Travis, Marshall Ford, and Austin clams and lakes–controlled by the Lower Central, and Upper Colorado River authorities 28°36’ N, 95° 58’ WCOLORADORIVER AQUEDUCTpart of the elaborate water supply system in Southern California purpose and mute 3:616awater supply system construction and history 1:COLORADO SPRINGScity, seat (1873) of El Paso County, central Colorado, U.S., at the confluence of Monument and Fountain creeks. It stands on a mesa (6,008 ft [1,831m]) near the eastern base of Pikes Peak, east of Pike National Forest for which it is headquarters. It was founded in 1871 as Fountain Colony by Gen. William J. Palmer, builder of the Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad, and was renamed for the nearby Manitou mineral springs. Growth of the area followed the Cripple Creek gold strikes in the 1890s and the promotion of tourist-health resort trade. In 1917 Colorado Springs consolidated with Colorado City (founded 1859 as El Dorado City). The establishment of military installations gave further impetus to development. The North American Air Defense Command is headquartered at Ent Air Force Base. Ft. Carson (1942), on the city’s southern edge, is the home of the Fifth U.S. Infantry Division. The U.S. Air Force Academy (1954), just to the north, is set against a backdrop of the Rampart Range. Garden of the Gods (a natural park with red sandstone monoliths), North and South Cheyenne canyons, and Shrine of the Sun (memorial to Will Rogers) are among the many scenic attractions The city is the site of Colorado College (1874), Nazarene Bible College (1967), and El Paso Community College (1969). Inc. town, 1872; city, 1886. Pop. city (1960) 70,194. (1970) 135,060; metropolitan area (I960) 143,742, (1970) 235,972. map, United States 18:908 COLORADO TICK FEVERalso known as MOUNTAIN FEVER, acute viral infection transmitted to man by the bite of the tick Dermacentor andersoni. This carrier tick is found chiefly in the western parts of the United States, notably in Colorado, and is most active in the spring and early summer. A few days following tick exposure, the fever onset is abrupt, often with intolerance to light, headache, and prostrating weakness. Aching soon becomes generalized, especially in the muscles and joints. Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting are the rule. The first attack lasts about two days. After a complete remission of all signs and symptoms lasting also about two days, there is in most cases a second attack that may be even more acute than the first. Except for the rare development of brain inflammation (encephalitis) in young children, however, recovery is commonly uncomplicated, and there is lifelong immunity. COLORATIONin early Western music notation, the use of red (later black) notes to denote their duration (see mensural notation). The term is sometimes also used of the stereotyped ornamentation formulas found in lute and keyboard compositions of the 15th and 16th centuries. notational device for rhythmic change 12:734hnotational solo-chorus part designation 4: COLORATION, BIOLOGICAL4:911, a genetically determined, dynamic, and complex characteristic of living organisms that serves many vital functions, including attraction or concealment. Colour is manifested in organisms either chemically, by natural pigments (biochromes), or physically, by colourless, submicroscopic structures (schemochromcs) that fractionate light into its component colours. The text article describes how colour is expressed in organisms, the structural and biochemical bases for colour, and the adaptive value of biological coloration. It also includes many examples of organisms that exhibit biological coloration and explains its function. REFERENCES in other text articles aging and adaptation relationships 1: Atheriniform sex related variations 2:271bbear uniform and dark shades 3: camouflage, mimicry, and warning coloursAnura versatility and camouflage 1: passim to 1008b bug protective mechanisms 8:846hcaprimulgif’orm camouflages 3:809fcryptic facial stripe in cat 3:937ecuckoo mimicry of host’s egg 5:360ffish uses of pigmentation 7:330gflatfish pigmentation patterns 14: genetic adaptations in peppered moths 8:814fherring protective mechanisms 4:766hinsect pigment, camouflage. and warning 9: Lairodectus warning marks 1:1071clepidopteran adaptations for protection 10:823g passim to 825dmimicry types and effects 12:214boctopus and squid voluntary patterns 3:1150dorthopteran adaptations for camouflage 13:746dowl plumage camouflaging effect 17:736dplover’s protective colouring 4: rain forest animal camouflage 10:344areptile warnings and camouflages 15:730brodent defense mechanism adaptations 15:973dskunk and other mustelid warnings 3:933fsnake mimicry and camouflage 16:563dTetraodontiform avoidance behaviour 18:163cUrodela’s poisonous species 18:1087acanid contrasting colours 3: cats various appearances 3:999bChiroptera fur patterns 4:434aciconiiform plumage changes 4:613hcommunication functions of animal colours 4:1011alizard ability lo display colour change 16:287apigeon signal marks 4:934bplumage patterns and mate selection 1:941hprimate genitalia colour changes 14:1025breproductive behaviour patterns 15:684epassim to 685hsocial behaviour adaptations 16:945cstickleback muting lure 7:938dwood pecker recognition of intruders 14:449gechinoderm variations in pigmentation 6:178bfur change mechanisms 1:33eGreat Barrier Reef life coloration 8:300elake species interactions 10:615gmammalian hair patterns 11:406cparrot sexual variations 15:140fpasserine feather patterns 13:l056fpigments and structural coloursbird structural and pigment influences 2:1056cdog and wolf colour genes 5:934fembryonic origin of animal pigment cell 5:634ghormonal effects on vertebrate skin 6:810bhuman eye pigment variations 7:94dpigment granules in Protozou 15:125arespiratory pigments gas transport 15:758grespiratory pigments of annelid worm 1: shrimp pigment variation with depth 5:545cskin colour control in lower vertebrates 8:1076fskin pigment variation in humans 16:841fslime mold Plasmodium features 16:886hSponge pigmentation and symbiosis 14: structural and pigment colours in hsh 7:333halgae pigment effect on habitat and nutrition 1:493c passim to 494cCaryophyllales pigmentation feature 3:974dconifer nutrient deficiency signs 5: daylight length effect on plant growth 14:353dfruit ripening process 7:765dlichen uses for pigment substances 10:884cNepenthales carnivorous features 12:960neusion water surface coloration 1: orchid pollination guides and signals 13:652b passim to 654hphotosynthetic cell development 14: plankton blue colour 13:498dpollination and nectar guides 14:744bRanunculales sepal function 15:309csloth algal and pigment colours 6:299epassim to 301 aultraviolet in flowers and bee vision 9:131bvegetable physical properties 19:44bpolymorphism types and nongenetic variation 14: radiation-induced mutation illus. 15:381rhythmic change in fiddler crabs 14:70d: illus. 72semi-monthly rhythm in crabs 14:73csnowshoe rabbit’s seasonal changes 10:589hstonefish body features 16:398dviverrid stripes and patterns 3: RELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and index; fopigments: see bilin: biochrome: carotenoid: flavin: flavonoid; melanin: ommochrome; porphyrin; quinone; sclerotinstructures: chromatophore; schemochrome types of coloration: advertising coloration: conccaling COLORED METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCHsee Christian Methodist Episcopal Church. COLORIMETRYthe measurement of wavelength and of the intensity of electromagnetic radiation in the visible region of the spectrum. It is used extensively for identification and determination of concentrations of Substances that absorb light. Two fundamental laws are applied: the one of a French scientist, Pierre Bouguer, which is also known as Lambert’s law, relates the amount of light absorbed and the distance it travels through an absorbing medium; and Deer’s law relates light absorption and the concentration of the absorbing substance. The two laws may be combined and expressed by the equation log Iu/I – ked, where Io - intensity of the incident beam of light, I = transmitted intensity, c = the concentration of absorbing substance, d - the distance through the absorbing solution, and k = a constant, dependent upon the absorbing substance, wavelength of light used, and on units of c and d. A simple application of this expression is found in comparing intensities of radiation through layers of different thicknesses of two solutions of the same absorbing substance, one with a known concentration, the other unknown. If the same incident intensity is used and if the thicknesses of the two solutions are adjusted so that the transmitted intensities are equal, then the concentration of the unknown (c2) can he expressed by the ratio of the thicknesses of the two solutions, d1/d2, times the known concentration (c1). If a photoelectric cell instead of the eye is used to compare intensities, the instrument is called a photoelectric colorimeter. In colorimetry, frequently the entire visible spectrum (white light) is used, and consequently the complementary colour of the one ubsorbed is observed as transmitted light. If monochromatic light or u narrow band of radiation is used, the instrument is called a spectrophotometer. It is not limited to the visible spectrum and is often employed to make measurements in the ultraviolet and infrared regions. The spectrophotometer has largely replaced the colorimeter. Most of the chemical elements and a large number and wide variety of organic compounds may be determined colorimetrically or spectrophotometrically. frequently at concentrations down to one part of the constituent in several hundred million parts of solution, principles and sensitivity 4:8la COLORUMPhilippine religious movement of the 1890s, centred on worship of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and resistance against Spanish colonial control. new tribal religious cults 18:704d COLOSSAL ORDERstyle of Classical architecture in which the columns of any single order rise from the ground throughseveral stories. In buildings of several stories, the Romans normally decorated each story with an order, lacing the Doric, us the most solid, at the bottom and the Corinthian, as the most elaborate, at the top. The Colossal order was revived in 18th-century Europe, notably in England in the grandly theatrical classicism of Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawks-moor. See also Dorie order; Corinthian order COLOSSEUMgiant amphitheatre built in Rome under the Flavian emperors (Vespasian. Titus, and Dominant and originally called the Flavian Amphitheatre (AD 69-82). Unlike earlier amphitheatres, which were nearly all dug into convenient hillsides for extra support, the Colosseum is a freestanding structure of stone and concrete, measuring 620 by 513 feet (190 by 155 metres) overall and seating 50,000 spectators. It was the scent of thousands of hand-to-hand combats between gladiators or of contests between men and animals and of many larger combats, including mock naval engagements. It was damaged by lightning and earthquakes in medieval times and, even more severely, by vandalizing; all the marble seats and decorative materials have disappeared. architectural style and construction 15:1077e: mapsdesign, construction, and stability 17:526hgladiators performing popularity 4:635bMartial’s poetry of consecration 11:546cRoman recreational Architecture 19:304c: illus. CULOSSIANS, LETTER OF PAUL TO THEA NEW TESTAMENT WRITING ADDRESSED TO CHRISTIANS AT COLOSSAE. ASIA MINOR, WHOSE CONGREGATION WAS FOUNDED BY PAUL’S COLLEAGUE EPUPHRAS. THE DEVELOPED THEOLOGY OF THE LETTER, MANY BELIEVE, INDICATES THAT IT WAS COMPOSED BY PAUL IN ROME ABOUT AD 62 RATHER THAN DURING AN EARLIER IMPRISONMENT. SOME QUESTION PAULINE AUTHORSHIP ON THE BASIS OF VOCABULARY. THE COLOSSIANS WERE APPARENTLY ADOPTING VIEWS AND PRACTICES THAT WERE INCOMPATIBLE WITH “THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD’S MYSTERY, OF” CHRIST, IN WHOM ARE HID ALL THE TREASURES OFwisdomand knowledge” (2:2,3). Though there are references to such things as philosophy and empty deceit (2:8), Jewish-like practices (2:16), visions (2:18), and “rigor of devotion and self-abasement and severity to the body” (2:23), the source of these teachings is not quite clear. The author strives to curb such tendencies by recalling the pre-eminence of Christ in everything (1:18), because he is “the image of the invisible God” (1:15), who reconciled man to God “by the blood of Ins cross” (1:20). The author then exhorts the Christian community to put away anger, malice, and foul talk and to show kindness, meekness, patience, forgiveness, and love in imitation of Christ. Every Christian, according to his state in life, should fulfill his duties. cosmic theology and syncretism polemic 2:963gPaul’s refutation of heresy 13:1093g COLOSSUSstatue considerably larger than life- size. They are known from ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, and Japan. The Egyptian sphinx (c. 2550 BC) that survives at Al Jizah, for example, is 240 feet (73 metres) long; and the “Diabutsu” (Great Buddha; AD 1252) at Kamakura, Japan is 37 feet (11.4 metres) high. The Greeks made a number of colossuses such as the archaic Apollo of Delos and Phidias’ chryselephantine (q.v.; gold and ivory) figure of Athena Parthenos. Chares statue of Helios in Rhodes was considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Over 100 feet (30 metres) high, it took 12 years to complete. The Romans also erected large statues; Pliny reports, for example, that Zenodorus made a 106-foot (32-metre) colossus of Nero. Colossal sculpture continued through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, as evidenced by the “St. Christopher” at Notre-Dame (28 feet [8.5 metres]) and Michelangelo’s “David” (Accademia, Florence). Among the many modem examples are the “Christ of the Andes,” between Argentina and Chile, (26 feet (7.9 metres] high), and the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor (about 305 feet [93 metres] high). Amenhotep III’s Colossi of Memnon 6:474aTheban Colossi of Memnon 18:264c COLOSSUS OF one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The statue, which commemorated the raising of Demetrius Poliorcetes long seige (305-304 bc) of Rhodes, was made of bronze (reinforced with iron and weighted with stones) and represented the sun god Helios, Over 100 feet (30 metres) high, it was the work of Chares of Lindus (a city on Rhodes) and stood by the harbour, perhaps shielding its eyes with one hand, as a relief suggests; the idea that it straddled the harbour entrance is medieval and technically impossible. The statue took 12 years to build (c. 292-280 BC), but about 22.5 it broke off at the knee in an earthquake. The fallen Colossus was left in place until AD 653, when the Arabs raided Rhodes and had it broken up and the bronze sold for scrap; it was said that the metal totalled 900 or more camel loads. capture by Arabs 3:027c COLOSTRUMthethin protein-rich mammalian milk secreted immediately before and after the birth of young. composition and characteristics 10:384c: tablelactation induced by prolactin 14:972fneonatal antibody source 9:252h   COLOTOMIC in music, use of specified instruments to mark off established time intervals. In the tuned percussion ensembles (gamelan) of Java and Bali, for instance, a musical unit of 16 measures may be marked by four instruments, a small gong striking once every odd-numbered measure; a larger gong striking each 4th, 8th, 12th, and 16th measure; another gong striking each 6th, 10th. and 14th; and the large gong ageng sounding in the 16th. The pattern thus culminates every 16 measures with the final stroke of the gong ageng, which the listener consciously or unconsciously expects to hear. Other examples of colotomic structure occur in the gagaku. or court music, of Japan (two-and four-measure divisions marked by a drum and hanging gong) and in the pi phat (percussion and oboe) ensembles of Thailand.(music): see timbre.       in physics, a term designating the composition of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye (i.e., light), in terms of a range of wavelengths and their relative intensities. Many ways of comparing colour have been devised, but all are subject to errors introduced by conditions such as the source of light and the type of material being observed, by physiological sensitivities of the observer, and by mental states of the observer. Colour standards incorporated into different kinds of charts for aiding visual judgment exist for the particular needs of almost every industry as well as for different fields of research; but their effectiveness is usually restricted to trained operators. In 1915 U.S. painter Albert Henry Munsell published The Alias of the Munsell Color System, based upon three characteristics that he defined as hue, value, and chroma, characteristics corresponding respectively to wavelength, reflectance, and purity. With a special photometer, Munsell divided the range between black and white into a scale of values, which became the basis for further developments in colour definition. Because of the structure of the human eye, all colours are seen as variable combinations of the three so-called primary colours red, green, and blue-violet. The two fundamental ways of combining mechanically the primary colours to produce any desired colour arc by addition and by subtraction. Addition may be demonstrated by superposing coloured light beams on a white surface; e.g.. red and green together produce yellow. Subtraction can be illustrated by stirring pigments together; e.g., yellow and blue give green when viewed in white light. Colours arc said to be complementary if they produce white when they are mixed additively, or they produce black if mixed subtractively. The Figure shows red. green, and blue-violet primaries mixed additively, and cyan (minus red), magenta (minus green), and yellow (minus blue) primaries mixed subtractively. Thus, the complement of any colour is the mixture of the other two in the triad Three characteristics generally used to distinguish one colour from another are brightness, hue, and saturation. Brightness refers to intensity. Hue is an attribute associated with a dominant wavelength in a mixture of light waves, the spectrum being divided into a scale of dominant (generally six or seven) wavelengths named red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet; but hundreds of other transition hues between these have also been defined and named; e.g., reddish blue. Saturation relates to relative purity or the amount of white light mixed with a hue. The most saturated colour contains no white light at all. Lavender (pale violet) and pink (pale red) are low saturated colours; lavender is a mixture of violet and white, and pink is a mixture of red and white. Hue and saturation taken together ate called chromaticity and, therefore, a colour may be characterized by its brightness and chromaticity. An objective and quantitative way of describing a colour is by means of a chromaticity diagram. Wave-lengths are expressed in millimicrons (10-9 metre), abbreviated to mµ. Using the artist’s pigment emerald green as an example, the spectral reflectance curve below shows the wavelengths at which emerald green is a poor or good reflector of violet light. When the sample is illuminated by ordinary white light, the reflected light is predominantly green; i.e., the maximum on the curve. According to the International Commission on Illumination (1931), any colour can be represented by various amounts of three components called the tristimulus values X (red), Y(green), and Z (blue). The tristimulus values for the emerald green curve (of dominant wavelength 511.9 millimicrons) are found by calculation to he X = 22.7, Y=39.1, and Z = 31.0. The quality of a colour is specified by its trichromatic coefficients x, y, and z, in which x = X/(X + Y = Z), etc. It follows from this definition that x + y + z - 1 applies for all values of X, Y, and Z. Because of this relationship, chromaticity is adequately expressed by any two or three trichromatic coefficients; the standard practice is to employ x and y. Using these values, chromaticity diagrams can be constructed on which colours are accurately defined for comparison and for use in manufacturing processes. animal coloration principles 4:913dart and designarchitectural use 1:1108eBaroque painting developments 19:427dCezanne’s early style and Impressionism 4:10gChinese painting use 19: Ch’ing pottery glaze innovations 19:204hcolour theory and colour interaction 13:871 b: illusenamelwork varieties 6:771cexpiessive qualities in painting 13:871 b; illus. furniture decorative materials 7:782aGauguin’s simple colour harmonics 7: heraldic colour usage 8:787d; illus. 789interior design utilization 9:689c passim to 691gKandinsky’s theories and paintings 10:377aKoryo celadon technique 19:212dlandscaping design components and use 7:886a; illus. Matisse Pointitlism and Fauvism 11 Mondrian’s development of colour scheme 12: motion picture use and effect 12:502dOrphist painting style 19: paint pigment and colorants 13:887gpottery-malting decorative techniques 14:896bRembrandt’s colour range 15;657crug and carpct design execution sculpture’s tradition of colouring I6:427gsymbolic use in art 2: Tails painting and pottery glazing techniques 19:190a passim in 190etextile printing methods 18: theatrical lighting design 17:553gtypography’s aesthetic considerations 18: visual communication in cartography 19:1040datomic structure characteristics 2:342d background radiation source, table 7 15: Cartesian atomistic analysis 3:969dchromophore absorption of light 5:1108h; table 1109colorimetric analysis principles 4: colour television principles 18:116cdyestuff chromophores and auxochromes 5: food preservation variable 7:495hgalactic x ray and photometric correlation 19:1067bheat reduction by colour change 12:120dindustrial measurement instrumentation 9:638glight interaction properties 16:l042glight wave dispersion principles 15: luminescence of pigments and dyes 11:179amotion picture light measurement 12: Newton’s optical principles 13 philosophical arguments concerning objective existence 15:539ephotosynthesis wavelength and energy 14: rubber additive function 15:1180gsemantic system of terms 10: spectrum discriminations in languages 10: theories of Descartes and Newton 14:3871transition metal crystal field theory 18:611atricolour photographic reproduction 14:318cCOLOUR, WATERtinting of freshwater by dissolved contaminants other than sediments in suspension. Organic extracts from plants and plant remains, lignites, and industrial wastes are among some of the contributing agents that cause coloration in natural waters. Groundwater is less susceptible to coloration than is surface water. COLOUR BARa bar or barrier for preventing people of one colour associating with those of another. In recent practice it has been most used by whites trying to exclude blacks and to a lesser extent Asians. Colour bars have operated in the United States in relations between whites and blocks and to a lesser extent between whites and Chinese and Japanese, while the practice has also been in use throughout history (e.g., among various Asian, African, and American Indian peoples). In India the caste system of the Hindus involved the segregation of people by occupation and religion as well as race.. For the colour bar in South Africa, see apartheid. Southern African mining job and wage problems 17:293b COLOUR BLINDNESSinability to distinguish one or mote of the three colours red, green, and blue. (Ability to see colour exists only in man and the other primates, bees, butterflies, fish, amphibians, some reptiles, and some birds.) In the retina, the light sensitive layer of tissue that lines the back and sides of the eyeball, there are, in human beings, three types of cones, the visual cells that function in the perception of colour. One type absorbs light best in wavelengths of blue-violet and another in the wavelengths of green. The third type is most sensitive to wavelengths of yellow but is also sensitive to red. Colour-blind persons may be blind to one, two, or all of the colours red. green, and blue. (Blindness to red is called protanopia; to green, deuteranopia; and to blue, tritanopia.) Red-blind persons are ordinarily unable to distinguish between red and green, while blue-blind persons cannot distinguish between blue and yellow. Green-blind persons are simply unable to see the green part of the spectrum. Colour blindness, which affects about 20 times as many males as females, is a sex linked recessive characteristic. A woman must inherit the trait from both parents to be colour-blind. A colour-blind man and a woman of normal colour vision have daughters who have normal colour vision but are carriers of the trail–that is, the daughters may have colour-blind sons and daughters who are carriers, The sons of a colour-blind man and a woman with normal vision themselves have normal vision and arc unable to pass the colour-blind trail on to offspring. The son of a normal man and a carrier woman may be colour-blind, and the daughter of such a union may be a carrier. Thus, colour blindness tends to skip generations. genetic mechanisms and inheritance 7: incidence of visual disorders 7:123hinnate factors in sensory dysfunction 8:1147gracial typing through genetics 15:353ctypes of colour blindness 7:107cCOLOUR defect in the regular spacing of atoms within a solid that absorbs visible light of a particular colour, infrared light, or ultraviolet light. Each colour centre involves the absence of an atom from the place it would normally occupy in the solid, plus a relation of electrons with such empty places, or vacancies. Solids without colour centres may still have colour if impurity atoms or other structures that absorb light are present, Colour centres are important in solids that are made up of electrically charged atoms, or ions, such as common table salt, or sodium chloride. There are several types of colour centres. The best understood one, called an F-centrc (German bar be, “colour”), results from the absencc of a negatively charged ion from a particular point in an ionic solid. This vacancy attracts and traps a freely moving electron, which combination constitutes an F-centre. The electron so trapped can absorb only certain colours of light. F-centres in sodium chloride absorb only blue light, giving the solid a yellow-orange tinge. Sodium chloride is usually colourless, however, because its electrons are not free to move to the negative chlorine ion vacancies within the solid. X-rays striking the solid, for example, may produce colour centres by freeing Removal of an electron from an atom leaves an empty space, or hole, that may behave as a positively charged particle within the solid. A second type of colour centre, called a V-centre, corresponds to the entrapment of such a hole by a positive ion vacancy or by a combination of two negative ions. V-centres, which are less well understood than F-centres, disappear alter a short time in solids at room temperature. electron excitation in ionic crystal 6:670aionic crystal defects and radiation 9.806g; illus.     COLOUREDSformerly CAPE COLOUREDS, the formal government census classification of the largest group of racially mixed South Africans. They live mostly in Cape Town, its suburbs, Port Elizabeth, and rural areas of western Cape of Good Hope province. They originated primarily from the illicit unions between men of higher and women of lower social groups, for instance, between European men and slaves and between slaves and Hottentot or Bushmen women. The slaves were from Madagascar, the Malayan archipelago. Sri Lanka (Ceylon), and India. The Bantu (Negro) element has been small until recent years. Socially the Coloureds fall between Europeans and blacks. They speak Afrikaans and English, are Christians, live in a European manner, and regard themselves as affiliated to the Europeans. Those living outside the towns are mostly labourers on European-owned farms. In the ports of Cape Town and Port Elizabeth there are communities of several classes of workers: teachers and salaried em ployees; shopkeepers, artisans, and other skilled workers; and, the largest group, casual labourers and factory workers. There is a Muslim minority, the so-called Cape Malays, who are mainly artisans and traders; they live mostly in sepal ate communities and marry among themselves for religious reasons. Although the Coloureds arc racially mixed, they have a strong sense of community as a consequence of the Europeans refusal to accept them as equals and their own refusal to be classed socially with the blacks. Until recently there was considerable intermarriage between lighter-skinned Coloureds and Europeans, and many Coloureds were absorbed into the white community, After the adoption in 1948 of an official policy of apartheid (q.v.), however, there was more rigid separation of occupation, the common franchise was removed, and intermarriage and sexual relations were prohibited; the social status of Coloured tended to be grouped more and more with that of the black community as non-white. British 19th century labour regulation 17:284bcommunity historic roots 17:67aDutch racial intermarriage attitude 17:280dOrange Free State population composition and religious influence 13: political organizational status 17:294apopulation, language, and religion 3:792gpopulation origin, comparison, and political status 17:302h passim to 304esegregated social and economic-position 3:795dTransvaal’s multiracial population 18:                                 COLOUR in astronomy, the reddening of starlight after passing through a region of interstellar dust particles; it is produced by strong scattering of shorter wavelengths (e.g., blue light) out of the beam that reaches the observer. Galaxy research methods 7:836binterstellar matter and star distance 9:792gphotometry measurement principles 14:348a COLOUR HEARINGor CHROMESTHRSIA, subjectively sensing a specific colour in response to nonchromatic stimuli, such as sounds or smell. illusions and sensory interaction 9:243eCOLOUR INDEXstandard reference work on dyes and pigments published by the Society of Dyers and Colourists, England, and the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists. dye and pigment classification 5:1101d COLOUR INDEXin astronomy, the difference between two magnitude (brightness on a logarithmic scale) measurements of a star made at different wavelengths, the value found at the longer wavelength being subtracted from that found at the shorter. Usually the two magnitudes are the blue, measured from ordinary photographic plates that are most sensitive to blue light, and the visual, measured on photographic plates sensitized to yellow to match the response of the human eye. The index is a measure of a star’s colour, an indication of its temperature, and a fairly crude description of the way its radiated energy is distributed through the electromagnetic spectrum. Hot blue stars have negative colour indices, as they radiate most strongly and therefore have numerically lower magnitudes at short wavelengths, and those of cool red stars are positive. The colour index of a distant star is increased by the passage of its light through interstellar matter; the amount by which it exceeds the normal value for its spectral type is called the colour excess. See also magnitude; UBV system. determination and use 7:835hinterstellar matter and star distance 9:792gphotometry measurement principles 14:348astellar spectroscopic parallax 13:996f COLOUR INDEX, IGNEOUS ROCKTHE SUM OF THE VOLUME PERCENTAGES OF THE COLOURED, OR DARK, MINERALS CONTAINED BY THE ROCK. THE SYMBOL FOR THE COLOUR INDEX IS M, SO DESIGNATED BECAUSE IT CLOSELY CORRESPONDS TO THE MAFIC (FERROMAGNESIAN) MINERAL CONTENT OF THE ROCK. VOLUME PERCENTAGES, ACCURATE TO WITHIN 1 PERCENT, CAN BE ESTIMATED UNDER THE MICROSCOPE BY USING A POINT-COUNTING TECHNIQUE OVER A PLANE SECTION OF THE ROCK; VOLUMES ALSO CAN BE APPROXIMATED VISUALLY IN HAND SPECIMENS IN THE FIELD. Many authors have used the colour index as a means of classifying igneous rocks. A simplified scheme distinguishes three groups, as follows: Icucocratic rocks, with M less than 30; mesocratic rocks, with M between 30 and 60; and melanocratic rocks, with M over 60. These words are derived from the Greek leuko- (“white”), meso- (“middle”), melano- (“black”), and -kratikos (“prevailing”). More complex schemes distinguish additional groups and apply appropriate names (e.g., hypermelanic or holomelanocratic with M over 90, and holo-leucocratic with M less than 10). The limits of the groups differ from one authoe to another, and, if quantification scheme being used should be specified. As originally presented, the terms felsic and mafic were used in a relative abundances of lightively in, in an igneous rock. Felsic and mafic have a mnemonic derivation. The most common light-colourcd minerals are he feldspathoids, and silica or quartz, giving the term felsic; other felsic minerals are corundum, zircon, muscovitc, lepidolile, and calcite. The abundant dark-coloured minerals are the so-called ferromagnesian minerals, which are rich in magnesium and iron, giving the term mafic; mafic minerals also include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, garnet, tourmaline, iron oxides, sulfides, and metals. Most minerals fall within these two broad groups. Colour is a general indication of rock composition because basic rocks have a greater content of ferromagnesian minerals, which are usually dark and have a high colour index. Acidic rocks contain abundant quartz and feldspars, which arc light coloured and, thus, have a low colour index. Broadly speaking, mineral colour indicates the specific gravity of the mineral; minerals that are lighter in colour are also lighter in weight. Darker minerals typically contain more of the relatively heavy elements, notably iron, magnesium, and Further refinements of the concept and its use in igneous-rock classifications give four terms now used to indicate increasing volume percentage of dark minerals: felsic, intermediate, mafic, and ultramafic. There is a strong correlation between this trend and a decrease in silica content, because the silica content of felsic minerals is generally greater than that of mafic minerals. Other oxides vary similarly, with alumina and the alkalies being enriched in the felsic minerals, and calcium, magnesium, and iron oxides becoming more important in mafic constituents. Such trends have given a chemical significance to the original mineralogical terms, and rather loose usage of this classification has caused confusion with the terms acid, intermediate, basic, and ultrabasic. In fact, some authors urge that the latter terms be dropped in favour of the mineralogic classification. Thus, at the present time both sets of terms are in common use, often interchangeably. Care must be exercised in rigidly applying rock colour as a quantitative parameter. It is useful for distinguishing rocks in the field, especially the more coarse-grained rocks. The overall colour of fine-grained or glassy rocks is a much less satisfactory indication of composition; one problem is that a given percentage of dark minerals gives to the rock a darker appearance when they arc finely divided than when they are more coarsely crystalline. Also, although obsidian is a very acidic rock, it is nearly black in colour; dunite, even though it is ultrabasic, is often a light green colour. A compilation of a large number of plutonic (deep-seated) and volcanic rocks shows that, on the average, plulonic rocks are slightly darker than their volcanic compositional equivalents. definition and applications 9:206b; COLOUR-MAGNITUDE DIAGRAMin astronomy, shows stars absolute magnitudes (brightnesses) plotted against their colours, which arc closely related to their temperatures and spectral types. It is similar to the Hertz- sprung Russell diagram (q.v.) except that the latter plots spectral types instead of colours and is therefore restricted in its use to relatively nearby stars for which reliable spectra can be obtained. star cluster magnitude and age 17:605f; illus.            COLOUR MUSICmusic intended for instrumental performance in conjunction with a simultaneous projection of changing colours onto a screen. It has its origins in the theory, prevalent in the Renaissance and systematically set forth by the Jesuit music theorist and mathematician Athanasius Kircher (1602-80), that each musical sound has a necessary, objective correspondence to a certain colour, From the 18th to the 20th century, experiments were made by adapting various keyboard instruments in such a way that when a key was depressed it would, in addition to producing a sound, raise a coloured tape or glass through which light was projected on a screen; other such devices, to be played alone or in accompanitment to music, produced colour alone. Several distinguished composers, notably Arnold Schoenberg (1874 1951) and Aleksandr Scriabin (1872-1915), were attracted by the idea and produced examples of colour music. Many theorists maintain, however, that in these compositions the colour is only unintegrated ornament, since it has not yet been convincingly demonstrated that the association of a colour with a particular sound or range of sounds is anything other than subjective or arbitrary.          (breed of cat): see Himalayan. COLOUR PRINTINGa process whereby illustrative material is reproduced in colour on the printed page. In the four-colour process, the illustrative material is separated into three basic colours plus black-and-white, and a separate printing plate made of each of the four images. When printed in the proper colour and properly superimposed on each other, these four plates can then reproduce the colours and shadings of the original material very accurately. development after Gutenberg 14:1057dpresent day methods and machines 14:l066d passim to 1073a COLOUR SCANNERdevice for producing corrected film negatives from a colour transparency image. electronic colour separation 14:303a COLOUR-SEPARATION technique for separating a coloured illustration into four separate components (three colours plus black-and-white) for printing purposes. See also colour printing. colour plate engraving for maps 11:483cprerequisite stages in map compilation 11 :480e COLOUR SYMBOLISMspecial significance given to the use of various colours; it has very wide application ranging from the use of specific colours for Christian liturgical vestments to pigments applied by primitive tribesmen to their bodies and the use or white as a symbol of mourning by Orientals. Christian liturgical vestments 4:606ecultural and religious variations 17:904dreligious vestment design 15: use and rationale in primitive religion 14:1045dVietnamese opera costumes 17:249c process whereby a scene in which motion is occurring is televised and reproduced in full colour. See also televisiondevelopment and system operation principles and design 18:116brare-earth industrial uses 15:526cCOLOUR VISIONability to distinguish among various bands of light waves and to percieve the differences as differences in hue. The nor mal human eye. can discriminate among hundreds of such bands of wavelengths as they are received by the sensory cells (cones) of the retina. There are three types of cones, each of which contains a distinctive type of pigment; one cone absorbs red light, another green, and the third type blue. A given colour stimulates all three types of receptors with varying effectiveness; the pattern of these responses determines the colour perceived. In the early 1970s the chemical changes that take place in the cone pigments had not been analyzed because of inability to isolate the separate pigments. Major ref. 7:l06ebee orientation and ultraviolet light 9: cone absorption experiments 14: evolutionary development of eyes 7:14cfish ability in habitat 7:336cinsect extension into ultraviolet 9:612hLepidoptera extension into ultraviolet 10:824gprotective coloration mechanisms 4:926csensory-reception theory and processes 16:546dultraviolet sensitivity in honeybees and birds 14: COLOUR (COLOR) or COLOUR CIRCLE or HUE CIRCLE, circular diagram showing the intergradations of the primary colours (red, blue, and yellow) into the secondaries (violet, green, and orange) and tertiaries (red-violet, blue-green, and so on). Complementary colours appear diametrically opposite one another. primary, secondary, and tertiary colours 13:871c:           COLPODA (protozoan): see trichostome.COLSON, JEAN-CLAUDE- (French playwright): see Bellecour. COLT (b. July 19, 1814, Hartford, CONN.–d. Jan. 10. 1862, Hartford), firearms manufacturer who invented the Colt revolver, the six-shot handgun popularized in fiction about the West. Colt ran away to sea at 16, and aboard ship he carved a wooden revolver that he patented in its working form in 1835. Featuring a cartridge cylinder that was rotated by cocking the hammer, Colt’s single-barrelled pistols and rifles were slow to gain acceptance, and a company formed to manufacture them failed in 1842. The following year he devised an electrically discharged naval mine, the first devicc using a remotely controlled explosive, and conducted a telegraph business that utilized the first underwater cable. Colt resumed firearms manufacture in 1847 after his revolver proved its usefulness at the outset of the Mexican War (1846), and in 1855 he built the world’s largest private armoury on the site of the present Colt Industries plant in Hartford. He developed beyond any industrialist before him the manufacture of interchangeable parts and the production line, to which he applied progressive ideas concerning employee welfare. His invention made him one of the wealthiest men of his day. See alsomine, naval; pistol; revolver.COLTER,(c.1775-1813)U.S. trapper-explorer, the first white man to have seen and described (1807) what is now Yellowstone National Park. He was a member of Lewis and Clark’s company from 1803 to 1806. In 1807 he joined Manuel Lisa’s trapping party, and it was Lisa who sent him on a mission to the Crow and other Indian tribes that led Colter to travel alone to the Yellowstone area. In three expeditions to the Three Forks area (head of the Missouri River) in 1808-10 he narrowly escaped with his life in battles involving warring Indian tribes. After the third incident he retired to a farm on the Missouri. Wyoming exploration adventures 19:1052a COLTRANE, JOHN (WILLIAM) (b. Sept. 23, 1926, Hamlet, N.C.–d. July 17, 1967, Huntington, N.Y.), saxophonist, one of the most brilliant figures in the jazz world ot the 1950s, who in his last years experimented with newHe began studying several instruments while in high school, later concentrating on saxophone at the Ornstein School of Music in Philadelphia. He attracted critical attention while working for Dizzy Gillespie (1949-51); by the time he joined Miles Davis (1955-57), and then Thelonious Monk, he was acknowledged as an outstanding jazz saxophonist and a leader of the avant-garde. In the last few years of his life, Coltrane became increasingly preoccupied with experimental free-form jazz. Many of his earlier recordings show a booming richness of tone, technical control, and melodic flair. He was one of the outstanding soloists in the Miles Davis watershed recording of 1956, Kind of Blue, in which jazzmen attempted successfully for the first time to abandon harmonic progression as the basis of improvisation in favour of melodic determinants such as mode and scale. Two biographies appeared in 1975: Chasin’ the Trane: The Music and Mystique of John Coltrane, by J.C. Thomas, and Coltrane: A Biography, by C.O. Simpkins. harmonic style characteristics 10:125f COLT REVOLVERSEE REVOLVER.              COLT open roof ventilation particularly suited to areas of high heal concentration. design and application 8:72Ie COLUBRIDAEfamily of snakes, typical snakes that have no vestige of hindlimbs, have lost the left lung, lack teeth on the premaxilla, and usually have a loose facial structure, relatively few head scales, and ventral scales us wide as the body. There are more than 2,000 species accounting for two-thirds or more of the world’s snakes. Most have solid and conical teeth; some have grooved fangs at the rear of the upper jaw and venom, usually of a paralyzing kind. Because of the position of the fangs and the small size of the mouth, a bite unaccompanicd by chewing is rarely harmful to man. In a few species the fangs are approximately under the eye, and these may be capable of a single effective bite. Most colubriris lay eggs, but some (especially the aquatic forms) are live-bearing. Colubrids occur in virtually all habitats and are the only snakes represented in cold regions. Major ref. 16:566fRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index boomslang; brown snake: bull snake; cat , snake: garter snake; green snake; hognose snake; house snake; indigo snake; king snake; kukri snake; leaf-nosed snake; mangrove snake; Montpellier snake: mussurana; racer; rat snake; sand snake; scarlet snake; smooth snake; tree snake; vine snake; water snake; whip snake: wolf snake; worm snake COLUBRINAgenus of trees from warm regions around the world. It belongs to the family Rhamnaceae (order Rhamnales). Several species arc used in folk medicines and for their timber. fruit, habitat, and seed dispersal methods 15:795b; illus.                                                COLUBRINA ASIATICAspecies of the buckthorn family ( COLUGOor COBEGO, any of the lemur-like gliding mammals, perhaps only two species, constituting the primitive order Dermopteru. They are found only in the Last Indies and certain of the Philippine islands. Colugos resemble large flying squirrels, being arboreal climbers and gliders with lateral skin membranes and large feet, webbed and clawed. The form of the head and the nocturnal habit, however, recall the lemurs, hence they are sometimes called flying lemurs. The tail is short and connected by skin folds with the hind limbs, as in bats. Most peculiar are the teeth, 34 in number. The lower incisors stick out in a comblike structure formed of enamel folds; the lateral pair, like the canines, arc double rooted. Canines are absent in the upper jaw. Cheek teeth premolars and molars bear sharp cusps. The digestive tract shows features consonant with a strict vegetarian diet. Besides the Philippine species, Cynocephalus volans, a series of races of Galeopierus variegatus ranges from Burma to the Malay Peninsula and from Sumatra to Borneo, Colugos were formerly considered a suborder of the Insectivora but differ from them and from other mammals in several basic anatomical features, especially in the form of the brain and in the dentition. evolution and mammalian relationships 11:413f; illus. 414                    COLUM, PADRAIC (b. Dec. 8, 1881, Longford, County Longford–d. Jan. 11, 1972, Enfield. Conn.), poet whose lyrics capture the traditions and folklore of rural Ireland. Influenced by the literary activity of the Celtic revival centred in Dublin at the turn of the century, Colum published the collection of poetry Wild Earth (1907), which contains such popular verses as “The Drover.” “The Plower,” “The Wild Ass,” and “The Sea Bird to the Wave.” He cofounded The Irish Review in 1911, then three years later settled permanently in the United Slates. Colum’s varied literary output includes volumes of poetry-e.G., Dramatic Legends (1922) and Creatures (1927); plays, such as Broken Soil (first performed 1903); novels; anthologies of folklore; and children’s books. The reminiscence Our Friend James Joyce (1959) was written with his wife Mary (18877-1957), a well known literary critic whom he married in 1912. COLUMAXtrade name for a series of aiuminum-nickel-cobalt magnetic alloy, magnetic material properties 11:335b; COLUMBA (COLUM or COLUMCILLE), SAINT (b. c, 521, County Donegal–d. June 8/9, 597, Iona. Inner Hebrides), abbot and missionary traditionally credited with the main role in the conversion of Scotland to Christianity. He studied under SS. Finnian of Moville and Fin. nian of Clonard, and was ordained priest c. 551. He founded churches and the famous monasteries Daire Calgaich, in Derry, and Dair-magh, in Durrow. Columba and his 12 disciples erected a church and a monastery on the island of Iona (C. 563) as their springboard for the conversion of Scotland, It was regarded as the mother house and its abbots as the chief ecclesiastical rulers even of the bishops. Columba gave formal benediction and inauguration to Aidan MacGabrain of Dunadd as king of Dalriada. He accompanied Aidan to Ireland (575) and took a leading part in a council held at Druim Cetta, which determined the position of the ruler of Dalriada in relation to the king of Ireland. The last years of Columba’s life appear to have been spent mainly in Iona, where he was already revered as a saint. He and his associates and successors spread the gospel more than any other contemporary group of religious pioneers in Britain. His feast day is June 9. Irish poems are ascribed to Columba, but they are manifestly of a later age; three Latin hymns may be attributed to him with some degree of certainty. The principal source for the life of Columba is that written by St. Adamnan, ninth abbot of lona, and edited by J.T. Fowler (1894). Excavations in 1958 and 1959 revealed Columba’s living cell, on a mound known as Tor Abb, and the outline of the original monastery. Insular manuscript production centres 3:653fIreland’s religious development 3:285aScotland’s conversion 3:233fCOLUMBA LIVIAsee pigeon and dove. COLUMBAN (COLUMBANUS), SAINT (b. c. 543, Leinstcr province, Ireland–d. Nov. 23, 61 5, Bobbio, Italy), one of the greatest missionaries of the Celtic Church, abbot, and writer who initiated a revival of monastic and lay spirituality on the Continent. Educated in the monastery of Bangor, County Down, he left Ireland (c. 590) with 12 monks (including SS. Attala, Gall, and Columbanus the Younger) and established himself in the Vosges Mountains at Annegray, then in Gaul. For the disciples who came to follow Columban’s rule, he built the nearby monasteries of Luxovium and Fontaines. Unpopular because of his attacks on degeneracy in the Burgundian court and among local clergy, he was indicted before a synod of French bishops (603) for keeping Easter according to the Celtic usage, whereupon he wrote Pope St. Gregory I the Great for aid. A powerful conspiracy was organized against him at the court of King Theuderich II. Forcibly removed from his monastery at Luxovium (610). he went with Gall and other monks to Switzerland, where he preached to the Alemanni, a pagan Germanic people. Compelled to leave, he went to Italy and founded the monastery of Bobbio (c. 612-14). His influence became widespread, and numerous miracles were attributed to him. His feast day is November 21 Columban’s works include poems, letters, and sermons, proving him a man of learning acquainted with Latin and Greek classics; his writings were edited by G.S.M. Walker, with an introduction and English translation (1957 Insular manuscript production centres 3:653fIrish missions in Europe 3:285b COLUMHA common name WOOD PIGEON, of the family Columbidae, order Columbiformes (pigeons, doves, dodoes, and sandgrouse crop damage, habits, and life span 4: passim to 93 5epeeking order and competitiveness 14:837cpopulation number regulation 14:825e COLUMBARIUMsepulchral building containing many small niches for cinerary urns. The term is derived from the Latin columba (“dove” or “pigeon”), and it originally referred to a pigeon house or dovecote. It later acquired its more common meaning by association. Columbaria were common during the early Roman Empire, when cremation was normal pagan practice. They were usually erected and supervised by funeral societies to which most of the lower and middle classes in Rome belonged. Originating as variants of traditional Etruscan and republican Roman house tombs, columbaria were ordinarily rectangular brick structures built around an open court, the walls of which contained niches for the urns. Some columbaria were very elaborate, and their numerous inscriptions, stucco paintings, and mosaics provide information about the otherwise almost totally forgotten life of the lower classes in antiquity. Perhaps the best examples of columbaria are those in the great heathen necropolis discovered in 1915 beneath the Basilica of S. Scbastiano in Rome When in Hadrian’s time (AD 117-138) inhumation replaced cremation in pagan practice, columbaria became obsolete. They did not reappear until the 20th-century revival of cremation. cremation ritual and ash disposal 3:1180eRoman tomb construction 19:303eCOLUMBIA (North American Indians): see Salish. COLUMBIAcity, seat of Marion County, southern Mississippi, U.S., on the Pearl River. Settled as a river port in the early 1800s, for three months in 1821 it served as the state capital. It thrived as a lumber town until 1929, when its sawmill shut down. New industry (clothing, hosiery, canned goods, naval stores) subsequently developed. The pioneer home, later a territorial post office and rest stop, of the Rev. John S. Ford, a delegate to the first Mississippi Constitutional Convention, is 20 mi (32 km) south. Pop. (1970) 7,587 31° 15’ N, 89°56’ W COLUMBIAcity, seat of Boone County, near the Missouri River, central Missouri, U.S. Columbia is an important educational and cultural centre. Originally established (1819) as Smithton, an inadequate water supply forced its move across Flat Branch in 1821, when it was plotted and renamed Columbia. The rerouting of Boone’s Lick Trail (1822) stimulated its growth. In 1839 Columbians pledged $117,900 for the location in their city of the projected state university, the first west of the Mississippi. Stephens College was founded in 1833, and Christian College in 1851–both women’s colleges. Schools, professional associations, and insurance companies are the main economic support, with some light manufacturing. A stale cancer hospital and a mental-health clinic are also in the city. Inc. 1826. Pop. (1970) 58,804. 38°57’ N, 92°20’ Wmap, United States 18: COLUMBIAborough, Lancaster County, southeastern Pennsylvania, U.S.. on ihe Susquehanna River. The site was settled (1726) by John Wright, a Quaker who went to preach to the Indians and remained to become a ferryman, landowner, and judge. The town was laid out by Wright’s grandson, Samuel, in 1788 and was one of the places considered (1790) by Congress for the site of the permanent U.S. capital. Important in the state-works system, 1834-57, as the terminal of the railway from Philadelphia, Columbia reshipped goods by canal to the Juniata River. Slaves knew it as a station on the underground railroad. Manufactures include textiles and glass and metal products. Inc. 1814. Pop. (1970) 11,237. 40°02’ N, 76°30’ WCOLUMBIAcity, capital of South Carolina, U.S., and seat (1799) of Richland County, situated in the centre of the state on the cast hank of the Congaree River just below the confluence of the Broad and Saluda rivers. Its history dates from 1786, when the legislature ordered a town laid out on the site to replace Charleston as the state capital–a move designed to placatc antagonistic sections in the state: mainly the small farmers of the Up Country against the Low Country plantation owners. During the American Civil War Columbia was a transportation centre and the seal of many Confederate agencies. In 1865 the city was occupied by Union troops and almost totally destroyed by fire. Bronze stars on the south and west State House walls mark spots where shells from Gen. William Tecumxeh Sherman’s Union artillery struck during the invasion. After the war the city was extensively rebuilt and developed a diversified economy based on government, industry, and agriculture. It bccame a wholesale and distribution centre with a large state farmers market. Cotton, peaches, and tobacco are important crops. Chief manufactures are synthetic fibres, textiles, structural steel, and aerospace products. Educational institutions in Columbia include the University of South Carolina (opened as a college in 1805), Columbia College (1854; Methodist), Columbia Bible College (1928), Lutheran Theological Seminary (moved to Columbia in 1910), Benedict College (1870; Baptist), and Allen University (1880; Methodist). The Town Theatre, Columbia’s little-theatre organization, has been in continuous operation since 1919. The Columbia Museum of Art houses a collection of Italian Renaissance paintings. Points of historic interest include Pres. Woodrow Wilson’s boyhood home (a museum since 1930) and the Robert Mills Historic House and Park, which includes the Ainsley Hall Mansion (1823), designed by Mills, who also designed the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C. The State House, or capitol (begun 1855), is a gray granite structure built in Italian Renaissance style. Columbia is the headquarters for the Francis Marion and Sumter national forests. Ft. Jackson, established during World War 1, is now used as an infantry training post. Murray Lake is just northeast of the city. Inc. village, 1805; city, 1854. Pop. (1970) city, 113,542; metropolitan area, 241,781. 34°00’ N. 8P03’ Wmap, United States 18:908 COLUMBIAcity, scat (1807) of Maury County, on the Duck River, west central Tennessee, U.S., south of Nashville, Settled in 1807, it developed as a centre for the dairy and livestock (mainly mules) trade in a region of fertile farmland and bluegrass. James Knox Polk, 11th U.S. president, moved to Columbia as a child from North Carolina; he began his law practice there in 1820, and his home near Court Square is now a historic site. During the Civil War the city was Confederate general N.B. Forrest’s operations base, and it was occupied alternately by Federal and Confederate troops, The city’s economic base shifted after 1890 with the exploitation of local phosphate deposits. Manufactures include phosphorus and phosphate chemicals, carbon and graphite electrodes, clothing, and cellulose sponges. Columbia Military Academy was established in 1905; other institutions are Columbia Business and State Community colleges. An annual local event is the Tennessee Walking Horse Jubilee. Inc. town, 1807; city, 1822. Pop. (1970) 21.471. 35°37’ N, 87°02’ map, United States 18:908          COLUMBIAone of the first four ships of the Cunard Line. displacement, dimensions, and power 16: COLUMBIA BASINregion covering most of central Washington, U.S., between the Cascade Mountains and the Idaho border and between the Okanogan Range to the north and the Blue Mountains to the south. Drained by the Columbia River, it is fertile and well irrigated. federal irrigation projcct 4:931egeographic features 19:6181lava underlay and surface features 18:915aCOLUMBIA ICEFIELD4:929, largest ice field in the Rocky Mountains, astride the British Columbia-Alberta border. Partially within Jasper National Park, it is one of the the most accessible expanses of glacial ice in North America. Its total area is about 200 sq mi (500 sq km). Its meltwaters form riven, that flow into the Atlantic, Arctic, and Pacific oceans. The text article gives a general description of the ice field and its principal components and covcrs scientific study of the Athabasca and Saskatchewan glaciers and the ice field itself. COLUMBIA MOUNTAINSin southeastern British Columbia, Canada, bounded by the Rocky Mountain Trcnch (east), the Columbia River (south), the Interior Plateau (west), and the Fraser River (north). They parallel the Canadian Rockies, of which they are sometimes considered a western extension, for about 150 mi (240 km) in a northwesterly- southeasterly direction. Physically, the mountains comprise four distinct ranges (Cariboo, Monashee, Selkirk, and Purcell), each of which rises to over 10,000 ft (3,000 m). The Cariboo Mountains (q.v.), separated from the others by the North Thompson River, form the northernmost extension of the system, while the southern part consists of the three parallel ranges of Monashee, Selkirk, and Purcell, which are divided by deep, lake-filled trenches. A major recreational area embracing two national and four provincial parks, tant source of gold, silver, copper, lead, and zinc. 52”00’ N, 119°00’ W                 COLUMBIAN18th-century U.S. printing press. novel design and metal construction 14:1054h COLUMBIAN EXPOSITIONsee World’s Columbian Exposition. COLUMBIA PICTURES, INC., motion-picture studio that gradually rose from producing second-rate films lo a more prominent position among Hollywood sludios. It was founded in 1924 by Harry Cohn. a former vaudeville promotor and producer of film shorts. During the 1930s and 1940s, along with low-budget, quickly made films, Columbia presented the comedies of the director Frank Capra, who was then struggling toward importance. One of the most famous of these comedies was It Happened One Night, which won the Academy Award for best production of 1934. In the 1950s and 1960s Columbia gained stature through some award-winning films, e.g.. From Here to Eternity (1953), On the Waterfront (1954), The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957), Lawrence of Arabia (1962), and A Man for all Seasons (1966). Columbia distributes television films through its subsidiary Screen Gems. COLUMBIA PLATEAUintermontane plateau and a physiographic division of the conterminous United States. It extends between the northern Rockies and the Cascade Mountains and occupies parts of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho states. It was formed by flows of dark volcanic lava and is trenched by the Columbia and Snake River systems. ancient lava eruption 9:216fCenuzoic formation 6: map, United States 18:908Oregon regional volcanic features 13:673cpassim to 673gstructure and elevation 14:527cTertiary volcanic activity 18: tholciitic basalt flows 9:     COLUMBIA RIVER4:930, largest river in volume flowing into the Pacific Ocean from North America. It rises in the Canadian Rockies of British Columbia, flows through the east central portion of the U.S. state of Washington, and. for 300 mi (480 km) to the Pacific, forms the Washington Oregon boundary. It has a drainage basin of 258,000 sq mi (668,000 sq km) and a total length of 1,214 mi, including 460 mi in Canada and 754 mi in the U.S The text article covers its exploration and development, the drainage basin and course of the river, and the human uses of its waters. 46° 15’ N, 124°05’ WREFERENCES in other text articles: drainage area and discharge table 15:877gorge features and water usage 18:915fhydroelectric power importance 19:618gmap, United States 18:908Pacific Northwest unification role 9:186cPleistocene flow and Dry Falls formation 19: size and location 3:298a COLUMBIA RIVER (Jan. 17, 1961), agreement between Canada and the U.S. to develop and share waterpower and storage facilities on the Columbia River. The treaty called for the U.S. to build Libby Dam in northern Montana, and for Canada to build dams at three locations in British Columbia. Hydroelectric power was to be provided to four northwestern U.S. states and two southwestern Canadian provinces. The treaty, which affords mutual protection against irregular diversion of power by cither country, was ratified by the U.S. on March 16, 1961, and by Canada on Sept. 16, 1964. COLUMBIA ROUNDin archery, a women’s target shooting event in which four ends (six arrows each) are shot from distances of 50, 40, and 30 yards, for a total of 72 arrows. Since 1910, the Columbia Round has been one ofthe events used indeciding the United States national women’s championship. A junior Columbia Round for younger competitors consists of 24 arrows shot from each of 40, 30, and 20 yards. COLUMBIA UNIVERSITYprivate, nonsectarian institution of higher learning located in New York City. Founded in 1754 as King’s College, it was renamed Columbia College when it reopened in 1784 after the American Revolution. Throughout the 19th century, graduate and professional schools were added, and the school became Columbia University in 1912. Columbia College remains the undergraduate liberal arts school for men, and Barnard College, founded 1889 and part of the university since 1900, is the undergraduate liberal arts school for women. Located on land adjacent to the university, Barnard has its own president, faculty, and trustees and is responsible for its financial endowment. The music, classics, mathematics, physics, and religion departments are joint departments with Columbia, and some undergraduate classes are held with Columbia College. Upon graduation, a Barnard student receives the degree of bachelor of arts conferred by Columbia. Other units affiliated with the university are the College of Pharmaceutical Sciences; Teachers College; and the College of Physicians and Surgeons, which, together with the Presbyterian Hospital and allied institutions, forms the nucleus of a great medical centre. A series of institutes offers specialized study and research. The American Press Institute provides a series of seminars annually for every level of personnel in newspaper publishing. There are urea institutes giving specific training in Russian, East Asian. Near and Middle Eastern, cast ccntral Europeun, and Israeli and Jewish studies. The American Assembly, established in 1950 at Harriman, N.Y., serves as a forum for discussion of broad policies of national and international import. The university enjoys reciprocal agreements with such New York City institutions as the American Museum of Natural History, the New York Botanical Garden, the New York- Zoological Society, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Museum of Modern Art. Besides its Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory at Alpine, N.Y., and its cyclotron at Nevis Estate, Irvington, N.Y., the university has associated organizations and facilities at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass.; the Long island Biological Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.; the Brookhaven National Laboratories, Upton, N.Y.; and the Yale-Columbia Southern Observatory in San Juan Province, Argentina. In the early 1970s undergraduate, graduate, and professional students at Columbia University numbered about 17.500. Eisenhower’s brief presidency 6: football’s early history in America 7:505hnational influence and significance 13:27anuclear fission experiments 13:324gpolitical science school establishment 14:703h(bird family): see pigeon and dove. 4:931. order of birds that includes pigeons, doves, dodoes, and sand grouse. The text article covers natural history, importance, form and function, evolution and fossil history, and classification. REFERENCE in other text article: behavioral classification by Aristotle 2:804dRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and index: dodo; passenger pigeon; pigeon, domestic; pigeon and dove; sand grouseItalianCOLOMBINA,stock theatrical character, originated about 1530 in Italian commedia dell’arte as the saucy and adroit servant girl; her Italian name means Little Dove, Her costume included a cap and apron but seldom a commedia mask; she usually spoke in the Tuscan dialect. In French theatre the character became a lady’s maid and intrigante and assumed a variety of roles opposite Cassandre, Pantalone (English Pantaloon), Harlequin, and Pierrot. In English comedies she was usually the daughter or ward of Pantaloon and in love with Hatlequin. The soubrette of the 20th-century musical comedy is a version of the Columbine character. columbine, common name for about 100 specie of perennial herbaceous (nonwoody) plants of the genus Aquilegia of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). They occur in the Northern Hemisphere Temperate Zone. About 30 species are native to Europe, and about 30 are native to North America. Several species are cultivated for their attractive flowers. Columbines are distinctive for their five-pelalled flowers that have long, backward-extending spurs as pouchlike extensions of the petals. Sepals and petals are brightly coloured. The leaflets of the compound leaves are usually rounded and notched. Aquilegia vulgaris, the common European columbine, grows 45 to 75 centimet-es (18 to 30 inches) tall along roadsides and the edges of wooded areas. It has been introduced into North America as both a cultivated and wild species. The flowers, which appear from May to July, are white, purple, or blue and 3.75 to 5 centimetres long. A. canadensis, a common North American species, grows in woods and on rocky ledges from southern Canada southward, It is 30 to 90 centimetres tall. The flowers are red with touches of yellow. Ranunculales petal origin theory 15: 509dtissue culture illus. 18: COLUMBITEhard, black (often iridescent), heavy oxide mineral of iron, manganese, and niobium [(Fe,Mn)Nb2O6]. Tantalum atoms replace niobium atoms in the molecular structure to form the mineral tamable, which is similar but much more dense. These minerals are the most abundant and widespread of the naturally occurring niobatcs and tantalates and arc important ores. Columbite and tantalitc occur in granite, pegmatites, and placer deposits. They occur abundantly in western Australia, Madagascar, and South Dakota. The element niobium (formerly columbium) was first recognized in columbite and originally was named after the mineral. For detailed physical properties, see table under oxide minerals. Mozambique mineral resources 12:597f COLUMBIUMsymbol Cb, chemical element, officially called niobium (q.v.), COLUMBUScity, seat of Muscogee County, western Georgia, U.S., at the head of navigation on the Chattahoochee River, opposite Phenix City, Ala. Founded in 1827 and carved out of the wilderness, by 1840 it had become a leading inland cotton port with a thriving textile industry utilizing power from falls in the river. During the Civil War it was a major supply city of the Confederacy and was the site of the last battle (April 16, 1865) east of the Mississippi, leading to its capture by Federal general James H. Wilson. Its Confederate Naval Museum houses the salvaged gunboat “Muscogee.” set afire and sunk in the river during the conflict. April 26 was set aside in 1866 by a group of Columbus women as a day for honouring the Confederate dead. Now highly industrialized, it is the second largest textile centre in the South, and dams and locks have revitalized river traffic. Ft. Benning (1918; named for Confederate Gen. Henry L. Benning), just to the south, was the site of the first airborne training and the home of the U.S. Army Rangers. Lawson Air Force Base is nearby. Columbus (state) College was opened in 1958. Inc. 1828. Pop. (1950) 79,611; (1970) 154,168; Columbus-Phenix City, Ala., metropolitan area (1970) 238,584. 32°29’ N, 84°59’ Wmap, United States 18: COLUMBUScity, scat of Bartholomew County, south central Indiana, U.S., on the East Fork of White River. Founded in 1821, it was named Tiptonia for John Tipton, who had donated land, but a month later it was renamed Columbus. It is a diversified industrial community surrounded by productive land. A city of modern architecture, two of its more notable works are the First Christian Church (1942; designed by Eliel Saarinen) and the North Christian Church (1964; designed by Hero Saarinen). Inc. town, 1839; city, 1854. Pop. (1970) 27,141. 39°13’ N, 85°55’ Wmap, United States 18:908 COLUMBUScity, seat of Lowndes County, northeastern Mississippi, U.S., on the Tombigbee River. Settled as a trading post (1817), it was first knov/n as Possum Town, in 1822 the steamboat “Cotton Plant” first docked in Columbus, then a port of entry. Confederate Decoration Day originated there at Friendship Cemetery on April 25, 1866. Many antebellum homes survive. A traditional agricultural and transportation economy is augmented by diversified manufactures including textiles, chemicals, and rubber products. The Tennessee Tombigbee Waterway Development Authority (1958) is headquartered in Columbus Mississippi State College for Women (1884), first U.S. state-supported collcgc for women, and Franklin Academy (1821), oldest free- public school in Mississippi, are located there. Columbus sac Air Force Base is 9 mi (14 km) north. Inc. town, 1821; city, 1884 Pop. (197(1) 25,795. 33° 15’ N, 89°56’ Wmap, United States 18:908 COLUMBUScity, seat of Platte County, eastern Nebraska. U.S., on the Loup River near its confluence with the Platte. It was founded (1856) at the North Fork Ferry of the Oregon Trail by an immigrant group from Columbus, Ohio. With the coming of the Union Pacific Railroad (1860), it became an outfitting post for wagon trains and a centre for cattle feeding. Its modern economy is based on agriculture and the manufacture of farm machinery and electronic and surgical equipment. Several public power agencies have their headquarters in Columbus, and nearby Lakes North and Babcock are reservoirs for the Loup Power District plant. Platte College was founded in 1969. Inc. town, 1865; city, 1907. Pop. (1970) 15,471. 41°25’ N, 97°22’ map, United States 18:908 COLUMBUScity, capital (1816) of Ohio. U.S.. scat (1824) of Franklin County, situated centrally in the state on the relatively flat Ohio till plain, at the junction of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers. It is the centre of a metropolitan complex that includes Grandview                   Upper Arlington, Worthington, Bexley, and Whitehall. The city was planned in 1812 as a political centre by the Ohio General Assembly and named for Christopher Columbus. The state government moved there in 1816 from Chillicothe. By 1840, following the extension of the National Road from Maryland and the opening of a feeder branch of the Ohio and Erie Canal into the city, significant growth occurred. In 1850 the city’s first railroad arrived. By 1900, when the population exceeded 125,000, the city had emerged as an important transportation and commercial centre. Unprecedented industrial development occurred after 1940; the location of a targe aircraft plant was the initial stimulus, but many large branches of national companies were also attracted to the area. The city’s favourable geographical position has been enhanced by the presence of main line railroads, an extensive highway network, and the airport, Port Columbus. The modern economy of the Columbus metropolis is largely supported by industry, governmental agencies, and educational and research institutions. Highly diversified manufactures include airplanes and space equipment, automobile parts, electrical equipment, machinery, glass, coated fabrics, shoes, processed foods, and printed materials Columbus is the site of Ohio State University (1870). Franklin University (1902), Capital University (1850), Ohio Dominican College (1911; formerly College of St. Mary of the Springs, 1868), Otlerbein College (1847), and Josephinium Pontifical College, and the state schools for the deaf and blind. Research organizations include Buttelle Memorial Institute (1929, metallurgy and mineral industries), the Orion Ceramic Foundation, and the Chemical Abstracts Service. The federal government operates one of the world’s largest military depots in Columbus, as well as Lock-bourne Air Force Base, Ft. Hayes, and other facilities. Many of the state’s welfare institutions and offices, the state penitentiary, state fairgrounds, and the Ohio State Capitol (a limestone structure in Greek Revival style, completed in 1861, with a group of bronze statues by the sculptor Levi T. Scofield) are in the city. Also of interest are the McKinley Memorial, Camp Chase Confederate Cemetery, the Ohio Historical Center (1970), home of the Ohio Historical Society, library and museum, the Center of Scicncc and Industry, Battelle Planetarium, and the 44-story LeVeque Lincoln Tower. The city supports a gallery of fine arts and a symphony orchestra. The Civic Center includes the city hall, a veterans’ memorial hall, and Central High School. Three nearby dams–Gtiggs (1905), O’Shaughnessy (1925), and Hoover (1955)– supply the city’s water. Scioto Downs and Beulah Park have harness and thoroughbred racing. Annual events include the state fair and the Columbus Day Celebration. Inc. city, 1834. Pop. (1950) city, 375,901; (1970) city, 539.677 (18.5% black); metropolitan area, 790,019. 39° 57’ N, 83°00’ Whistorical and political importance 13:518fmap, United States 18 COLUMBUS, BARTHOLOMEWSEE COLOMBO. BARTOLOME. COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER4:937, Spanish CRISTOBAL COLAN (b. 1451, Genoa, Italy-d. May 20,1506, Valladolid, Spain), first historically verifiable discoverer of the New World. His four voyages opened the way for European exploration, exploitation, and colonization and irreversibly changed the course of world history. Abstract of text biography. Little is known of Columbus early life, but he undoubtedly went to sea at a young age. Believing he would reach the East by sailing west, Columbus searched for a patron to fiance his voyages; the king and queen of Spain met his Maria,” the “Nina,” and the “Pinta”–sailed from Palos on August 3; they sighted land (San Salvador) on October 12. He explored the Caribbean islands before returning to Spain. During the second voyage (1493-94), which was filled with misadventures, Columbus founded the first European city in the New World. On the third voyage (1498-1500) he discovered the mainland of South America, but he was replaced as governor because of his poor administration. His final voyage (1502-04) was in deliberate opposition to royal orders REFERENCES in other text articles: Bahamian discovery and explorations 2:591bCuba discovery in 1492 5: discoveries and claims 4:88leEast Indies route search and discovery 7:1040a passim to eschatological motivation for sailing 4:504bFerdinand II’s importance to voyage 7:233cGuadeloupe discovery in 1493 8: Hispaniola discovery and colonization 5:948gIsabella’s support and relationship 9:907cJamaica discovery and ownership 10:17cMarco Polo’s travels and influence 14:757cMartinique landing in 1502 l1:547hspice trade routes and San Salvador 17:502gsugarcane introduced to the New World 17: Trinidad and Tobago discovery 18:711cVirgin Island discovery and naming 19:159evoyage discoveries and consequences 10:691f          COLUMBUS (COLON), DIEGO (b. 1479/80. Porto Santo, Madeira Islands–d. Feb. 23, 1526, Montalban, Spain), eldest son of Christopher Columbus and viceroy of the Indies for 15 years, who spent most of his time in legal battles to secure the Columbus claims. When his father undertook the great voyage of discovery in 1492, Diego was made a page at the Spanish court. After his futher’s death in 1506 Diego began a long struggle to regain Christopher s former privileges in the Indies. His marriage to Maria Alvarez de Toledo, niece of the Duke of Alba, the cousin of King Ferdinand, worked in his favour, and in 1508 he was accredited governor of the Indies. He arrived at Santo Domingo in July 1509 to lake his post. Not satisfied with that assignment alone, he wanted all his father’s privileges, in May 1511 he received the hereditary title of viceroy of the islands, but no mention was made of the mainland. Throughout his vice regency Columbus protested encroachments upon his authority, such as the formation of an audiencia (governing body) and the residencia (inspection). He made several voyages to Spain to defend his position in 1515 and 1523 but died without any final decision on his rights. In June 1536 a compromise settlement was made. His son Luis was to receive the title admiral of the Indies but would renounce all other rights in return for a perpetual annuity of 10,000 ducats, the island of Jamaica in fief, and an estate of 25 square leagues on the Isthmus of Panama with the titles of duke of Veragua and marquis of Jamaica. West Indies administrative duties 4:940e COLUMBUS, SAMUEL (1642-1679), Swedish poet and prose writer. Swedish literature development 10:1161a COLUMBUS (1937), statement of principles resulting from a conference of Reform rabbis. It supported traditional Jewish customs and ceremonies, including the use of Hebrew. Reform Judaism and Jewish identity 10:324aCOLUMCILLE,see Columba. Saint. COLUMELLA, LUCIUS JUNIUS MODERATES (ft. 1st century AD. Cades, Spam), Roman soldier and farmer who wrote extensively on agriculture and kindred subjects in the hope of arousing a love for farming and a simple life. He became in early life a tribune of the legion stationed in Syria, but neither an nor the law attracted him, and he took up farming, successfully, in Italy. The De re rustiea in 12 books, which is his second and fuller treatment of farming and country life, has survived as has De arboribus (“On trees”) which was part of an earlier work. The subjects of the first nine books of the De re rustica are general precepts, land and crops, vines, land dimensions, trees, and livestock. The. 10th book, on gardening, was written as a supplement to the Georglcs of Virgil. This was intended to close the work, but, to fulfill a promise to a friend, Columella added the 11th book, on the duties of a bailiff, on what work must be done in each month of the year, and on the culture of gardens and garden herbs. The 12th book concerns the choice and duties of a bailiff’s wife. Columella was an experienced farmer; he had an attractive enthusiasm for his calling and great pride in it. His style is neat, lucid, and sober, and he avoids technicalities as far as is compatible with giving necessary information. COLUMELLIACCAEfamily of the plant order Scrophulariales. evolution and classification 16: COLUMN (architecture): see orders of architectureCOLUMNA ROSTRATA (architecture): see rostra; column. COLUMNARor COLUMNAR JOINTING, a structure formed by the separation of an igneous rock along planes such that a series of columns is produced. The ideal example of columnar structure is that formed by the cooling of a basalt lava flow, during which contraction of the rock produces a separation along planes perpendicular to the top and bottom of the flow; three vertical fractures radiate from numerous centres, and a scries of six-sided vertical columns typically is formed. It should be noted, however, that three-, four-, five-, and even seven-sided columns have been observed in nature. Columnar structure is well developed at the Devil’s Post-pile National Monument, California, and the Giant’s Causeway, Ireland. This structure can be used to determine the original orientation of rocks that have been tilted after their emplacement. See also joint. COLUMN CHROMATOGRAPHYa method for separating mixtures of substances in which a liquid or gaseous solution of the mixture is caused to How through a tube packed with a finely divided solid, which may be coated with an adsorbent liquid, or through a capillary tube bearing a thin film of adsorbent liquid; the components of the mixture separate because they travel through the tube at different rates, determined by the degree to which each is retarded by interacting with the stationary material. See also gas chromatography; gel chromatography. biochemistry research techniques 2: chemical analysis separation methods 4:79dchromatographic technique development 4:565hion-exchange column preparation 9:801e COLUMNISTthe author or editor of a regular, signed contribution to a newspaper, usually under a permanent title and devoted to comment on some aspect of the contemporary scene. The column may be humorous or serious, on one subject or oil life in general, frivolous in tone or heavily freighted with good advice on manners, morals, or other subjects of interest. Essentially a column is a reflection of the writer’s individual tastes and point of view, whether it is concerned with women’s hats foreign policy, or the stock market. The word columnist is recent and American apparently dating from about 1920, but columns were in existence much earlier. The late 19th century saw the development in the U.S. of humorous miscellanies frequently featuring contributions from readers. Among the pioneers in this form were Eugene field and Ambrose Bicrce. In the early 20th century the role of the columnist who presided over these collections of diverse elements became more defined, and the modern column emerged. In the 1920s columns proliferated in many fields, including politics, economics, books, motion pictures, society, medicine, homemaking, sports, advice to the lovelorn, and other aspects of contemporary life and ideas. National syndication of columns increased rapidly; in the latter half of the 20th century there were over 400 in the U.S. Newspapers ranging from eight-page weeklies to metropolitan dailies recognized the value of the “personal touch” provided by their own columnists. Many widely syndicated American columnists have become household names: Don Marquis created his famous characters Archy and Mehitabel in his literary columns for the New York Herald Tribune; Will Rogers combined philosophy and humour in his newspaper columns; political columnists such as Walter Lippmann and Drew Pearson interpreted public affairs; Walter Winchell and Hedda Hopper produced nationally read gossip columns about celebrities and film stars. COLUREin astronomy, cither of the two principal meridians of the celestial sphere. One (solstitial colore) passes through the celestial poles and the two solstices, the other (equinoctial colure) through the poles and the two equinoxes. COLVIN, SIR SIDNEY (1845-1927), English scholar. tripartite an classification 2:84h COLWYN BAYseaside resort and borough (1934), county of Clwyd (until 1974 it was in the former Denbighshire), North Wales. The town grew rapidly after World War I to become contiguous with Old Colwyn and Rhos-on-Sea, with which it is linked by a 3-mi (5-km) promenade around the sandy Irish Sea bay. Pop. (1971 prelim.) 25,535. 53° 18’ N, 3°43’ Wmap, United Kingdom 18:866     COLYor MOUSEBIRD, African bird that looks much like a mouse when seen running along branches with its long tail drooping. Its single genus (Callus) and six spEcies constitute the family Coliidae, order Coliiformes. The body is sparrow sized, but the tail makes the total length 30-35 centimetres (roughly 12 to 14 inches). Colies sometimes climb like parrots, using the curved (inchlike bill for grasping twigs. They also can hang by the feet, swinging beneath a branch using their rear toe, which can be rotated outward and fully forward, as do some swifts, to obtain a strong clinging grip. The grayish or brownish body plumage is soft, loose, and hairlike. There is a short erectile crest on the head, and most species have a touch of blue or green at the nape and some red or blue skin around the eyes. The sexes look alike. The nest, in a tree, is a grassy cup that may be supported on a platform of twigs. The two to seven eggs are white with brown markings. Both sexes incubate. Colics huddle together to sleep or to preen one another. Small parties move from tree to tree feeding on buds and fruits. In some localities colies damage fruit crops. COLYDIIDAEcommonly called CYLINDRICAL BARK BEETLES, large family of beetles of order Coleoptera; they are native to the tropics and to New Zealand. adult form, texture, and classification 4:829d COLYMBIFORMESsee loon.COLZA (plant): see rape.COMA (optics): see aberration. COMAunconsciousness from which one cannot be aroused. anesthesia and loss of consciousness 1:867gdeath’s levised definition 5:529cdiabetic form’s causation 6:836hsedative-hypnotic drug effects 16:456f nebulous haze surrounding the nucleus of a comet. characteristics and structural models 4:973h COMABERENICESalsoknownas BERENICE’S HAIR, small northern constellation said to represent the hair of an Egyptian queen, offered by her in a temple of Venus. constellation table 2:226external galaxy distribution 7:829e passim to 830bstar cluster distance and composition 17:      COMANAmodern SAHR. ancient city of Cappadocia, located on the upper course of the Seyhan (Sarus) River, in Adana (Seyhan) il (province), Turkey. Frequently callcd Chryse or Auzia to distinguish it from Comana in Pontus, it was known as the place where the cult of Ma-Enyo, a variant of the great west Asian mother goddess, was celebrated with orgiastic rites. The service was carried on in an opulent temple by thousands of temple servants. The city, a mere appanage of the temple, was governed by the chief priest, who was generally a member of the reigning Cappadocian family and ranked next to the king. Under the emperor Caracalla (reigned AD 211 217), Comana became a Roman colony, and it continued to receive honours until the official recognition of Christianity. Comana was also important because of its position on the road from Caesarea Mazaca (Kayseri) to Melitene (Mulatyu), converted by the emperor Septimius Severus (reigned 193-211) into the chief military road to the eastern frontier of the empire. COMANCHEnomadic North American Indian group that in the 18th and 19th centuries roved the southern Great Plains. The Comanche were an offshoot of the Wyoming Shoshoni and, prior to their migration south, had been semi-sedentary hunters and gatherers. They moved south in successivc stages, attacking and displacing other Plains tribes, notably the Apache (q.v.), whom they drove from the southern plains. By the early 1800s the Comanche were a powerful tribe, with a population estimated at between 7,000 and 10,000. Their language, of the Shoshonean branch of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock, became a lingua franca for much of the area. The Comanche were organized in 12 or so autonomous bands–local groups that lacked the lineages, clans, military societies, and tribal government of most other Plains Indians. Prior to 1874, the Comanche did not perform the sun dance or any other integrating tribal ceremonial. Their staple food was buffalo meat. The buffalo also provided them with robes, covering for their tepees, sinew thread, and water carriers made of the animal’s stomach. The Comanche were one of the first tribes to acquire horses from the Spanish and one of the few to breed them to any extent. The highly skilled Comanche horsemen set the pattern of equestrian nomadism that became so characteristic of the Plains Indians in the 18th and 19th centuries. Comanche raids for booty and captives carried them as far south as Durango in Mexico. In the mid-19th century the Penateka, or southern branch of the Comanche, were settled on a reservation in Indian Territory (now Oklahoma). The northern segment of the tribe, however, continued the struggle to protect the hunting grounds from white settlers. In 1864 Christopher (“Kit”) Carson led U.S. forces in an unsuccessful campaign against them. In 1865 the Comanche and their allies the Kiowa signed a treaty with the U.S., which granted them what is now western Oklahoma from the Red River north to the Cimarron. Upon U.S. failure to abide by the terms of the treaty, hostilities resumed until 1867, when, in agreements made at Medicine Lodge Creek in Kansas, the Comanche. Kiowa, and Kiowa Apache undertook to settle on a reservation in Oklahoma. The government, however, was unable to keep whites off the land promised to the Indians, and it was after this date that some of the most terrible encounters between U.S. forces and the Comanche took place. In the early 1970s about 3,000 Comanche were living on individual holdings in the vicinity of Lawton, Okla Basin Indian culture and religion 13:205ccreation myth and folktale themes 1: Plains Indian culture 13:223h; map 774primitive law and punishment 14:       COMANCHE SERIESdivision of Cretaceous rocks and time in the U.S. (the Cretaceous Period began about 136,000,000 years ago and lasted about 71.000,000 years). It was named for exposures studied in the region of Comanche County, Texas, and occurs throughout the Gulf coastal-plain area. The Comanche Series is divided into three rock units that range in age from late Parly Cretaceous to early Late Cretaceous: the Trinity, Fredericksburg, and Washita groups. The Trinity Group, about 450 metres (1,500 feet) of sandstones and some limestones, is correlated with the upper part of the Aptian Stage and the lower part of the Albian Stage, standard worldwide divisions of Cretaceous rocks and time. The Fredericksburg Group, about 120 metres (400 feet) of predominantly imestones, is correlated with the middle part of the Albian Stage. The uppermost group, he Washita, about 100 metres (350 feet) of imestones, is correlated with the upper part of the Albian Stage and the lower part of the Cenomanian Stage; it thus provides a coninuous record from the Lower Cretaceous into the Upper Cretaceous.COMANDRA (herb genus): see bastard toadlax. COMANI (people): see CumansROMANS, MARC DE (1563-C. 1650) FLEMISH WEAVER Gobelin tapestry factoryestablishment 17:1063h COMASin full, PAMPA DE COMAS, Comus district, Lima-Callao metropolitan area, Peru. Established in the. 1950s in the Rio Chillon valley about 7 mi (12 km) north of downtown Lima, Comas and neighbouring towns were granted district status in 1961. Residents have transformed the original reed mat shacks into in impressive suburb of one and two-story brick houses, numerous retail and servicc establishments, educational and recreational facilities, and churches. The low and middle-income community, linked to central Lima by a new highway, is among Peru’s best known and most progressive pueblos jovenes (“young owns”). Pop. (1972 prelim.) 173,205. 11 °57’ S, 77°04’ W department, west central Honduras, bounded on the northwest by Lake Yojoa. The 2,006-sq-mi (5,196-sq-km) territory extends from the Cordillera de Montecillos eastward across the Rio Humuya Valley to he Montanas de Comayagua. In the fertile valleys coffee, tobacco, rice, yuca, beans, and corn (maize) are cultivated and cattle, swine, and poultry are raised. Although not served by railroads, the department is traversed northwest-southeast by the Inter-Oceanic highway, which passes through Comayagua, he departmental capital. Pop. (1970 est.) 29,526. area and population table 8:1057map, Honduras 8: COMAYAGUAcapital, Comayagua department, west central Honduras, on the right bank of the Rio Humuya in a fertile valley.founded in 1540 as Valladolid la Nueva, the own served as the Spanish colonial capital of Honduras province. It was burned by revolutionaries in 1827, when it had a population of 8,000. It served also as capital of the republic until 1880, when it was replaced by Tegucialpa, Colonial buildings include a notable athedral (1715), several 16th-century churchs, and a former university (the first in Central America). Comayagua has many small industries and is on the Inter-Ocean Highway. Pop, 1970 est.) 27,261 4°25’ N, 87°37’ Wmap, Honduras 8:1058 COMBAHEE RIVERformed in Colleton Country southern South Carolina, U.S., by the conluence of the Salkehatchie and the Little salkehatchie rivers. It flows 40 mi (64 km) southeast to join the Coosaw River near its mouth on St. Helena Sound, Combahee is derived from an Indian tribal name 32°30’ N, 80°31’ W                 COMBARELLES, archaeological site in France. cave engraving style and significance 17:704e COMBAT DANCEStype of folk dance. folk dance in the Balkans and Central America 7:449h COMBAT FATIGUEalso called BATTLE FATIGUE, COMBAT EXHAUSTION, SHELL SHOCK, OR BATTLE STRESS, a term commonly used in wartime to designate states of (1) hypersensitivity to stimuli such as noises, movements, and light accompanied by overactive responses that include involuntary defensive jerking or jumping (startle reactions); (2) easy irritability progressing even to acts of violence; (3) sleep disturbances including battle dreams, nightmares, and inability to fall asleep. Although persons in combat differ widely in their susceptibility to combat fatigue because of hereditary factors and previous training, most cases result from exposure to physical hardship, prolonged and excessive exertion, and emotional conflicts. The emotional conflicts usually are related to loss of comrades, leaders, and group support, together with other precipitating events in the battle setting. Most patients are treated with best results near the front lines by being given rest. food, and sedation, provided they are permitted to stay with their units. U.S. armed forces in the late 1960s claimed to have nearly eliminated combat fatigue, attributing their success to practices such as frequent troop rotations, regular hot meals and other comforts for troops in combat areas, rest and recreution leaves away from the war zone, quick evacuation of wounded and good medical aire, and application of psychiatric techniques to whole units as well as to individuals. fatigue in stress situations 7:192bsymptoms, susceptibility, and treatment 15:172c COMB-CLAWED BEETLEany member of the family Alleculidae (sometimes called Cistelidae) in the order Coleoptera, containing about 1,100 species. The adults are usually found on flowers or leaves and the larvae in rotten wood or humus. trails and classification 4: COMBE, WILLIAM (b. 1741, Bristol, Eng.–d. June 19, 1823, London), prolific writer of miscellaneous prose and satirical verse whose poem Tour of Dr. Syntax in Search of the Picturesque (1812) was one of the most popular books of the early 19th century in England, in it and its successors. The Second tour in Search of Consolation (1820) and The Third Tour ... In Search of a Wife (1821), he satirized the many 18th- and early-19th-century writers whose “Tours,” “Travels,” and “Journeys” were vehicles for sententious moralizings, uninspired raptures, and sentimental accounts of amorous adventures. Combe’s Tours owed much to the illustrations of Thomas Rowlandson, with whom he also collaborated in The English Dance of Death (1815), which contains some of his best verse, and The Dance of life (1816-17). Combe’s life provides much material for Dr. Syntax’ absurd adventures. A legacy enabled him to startle London society by his extravagance and to travel abroad; deep in debt, he continued his travels as soldier, waiter, teacher, and cook. From about 1771 he earned a living as a writer in London COMBERtown in County Down, Northern Ireland, to the west of Lough Strangford and just southeast of Belfast. Its Protestant church was originally built in 1610 on the site of a 13th-century Cistercian abbey. In the square is a tall pillar surmounted by a statue of General Sir Robert R. Gillespie (1766-1814), a distinguished native son. The town has linen factories and a distillery. Latest census 3,980. 54°33’ N, 5°45’ W COMBES. (JUSTIN-LOUIS-) EMILE (b. Sept. 6. 1835, Roquecourbe, Fr.–d. May 25, 1921, Pons), premier who presided over the separation of church and state in the wake of theDreyfus affair. A seminarian in his youth, Combes published his doctoral thesis, La Psychologic de saint Thomas d’ Acquin, in 1860, but before ordination he left the church. He studied medicine and settled in Pons, where he was elected mayor in 1875. In 1885 he was elected to the Senate from the Charente-Inferieure-departement, where he chose to sit with the anti-clerical Radical Party. In 1895 Combes joined the Lion Bourgeois government as minister of education. When he left that post (April 1896) he remained active in politics and supported Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau’s efforts to redefine the relationship between church and state Combes succeeded Waldeck-Rousseau as premier. Although he apparently favoured a new concordat with the Vatican, he agreed to the dismantling of important aspects of the public functions of the church, especially in matters of education. These decisions precipitated a break in diplomatic relations between France and the Holy See. When the Act of Separation (December 1905) was formally adopted, Combes had already fallen from power, the victim of the affaire des fiches de delation (“affair of the cards of denunciation”) in which his war minister, the militant anti-clerical Gen. Louis Andre, was accused of receiving reports on suspected reactionary and clerical army officers from Masonic groups Soon after he left the ministry, Combes wrote Une Campagne laique (1904; “A Secular Campaign”), and Une Deuxieme Campagne laique (1905; “A Second Secular Campaign”), and Mon Ministere (1906). Widely admired by many Republicans, he was called to serve as minister without portfolio by his former colleague Aristide Briand in October 1915, despite his advanced age. COMBET, GEORGES (1895- ), French industrial designer definition of good design 9:512h COMB fish of the family Zaniolepididae of the order Scorpaeniformes. classification and general features 16:400f         COMB-FOOTED SPIDERor COBWEB WEAVER any member of the spider family Theridiidae (order Araneida). The more than 1,000 species of comb-footed spiders are distributed worldwide, and they include the olack widow (q.v,).The webs of theridiids consist of an irregular network of threads from which the spider often hangs. The common name of the group is derived from a row of bristles on the tarsus, or “foot,” of the hindlegs, which arc used to throw silk over prey to ensnare it. predatory hunting techniques and classification 1:1069c                in mathematics, a set of objects selected from another set of objects without regard to order. The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time is the binomial coefficient; that is, the coefficient of the rth power of a in the expansion of the nth power of the binomial (a + b), as given in the binomial theorem (q.v.). combinatorics theory and method 4:943hprobability theory and method 14:1105a       COMBINATION ACTSBritish acts of 1799 and 1800 that made trade unionism illegal. The laws, as finally amended, sentenced to three months in jail or to two months’ hard labour any working man who combined with another to gain an increase in wages or a decrease in hours or who solicited anyone else to leave work or objected to working with any other workman. The sentence was to be imposed by two magistrates, and appeal was made extremely difficult. Anyone contributing to the expenses of a person convicted under the act was subject to a fine, and defendants could be forced to bear witness against each other. Other clauses forbade employers’ combinations, but these were never in any recorded case put into operation. The repeal of the Combination Acts in 1824 was followed by a number of strikes, and in 1825 an unsuccessful attempt was made to reimpose the acts trade unions viewed as conspiracy 18:564d COMBINATION LOCKa lock whose mechanism is controlled by one or more movable dials or rings inscribed with letters or figures and opened after the dial bus been turned to combine the characters in a certain order, design and construction 11:11e COMBINATION PRINCIPLErelationship between lines in a spectrum and a set of terms such that the frequencies of the lines are given by the differences between the terms. X-ray emission spectra 19:1061 g        COMBINATION TONEin musical sound, faint tone produced by the ear’s distortion of sound waves and heard above, between, or below two simultaneously sounded musical tones. Because such tones are caused by the ear rather than by the external source of the sound, they are sometimes culled subjective or resultant tones. There are two varieties: difference tones (D) and summation tones (S). The pitch of a difference tone lies below or between the original tones, the pitch of a summation tone lies above them. The most commonly heard are difference tones lying below the original pitches; discovered by the celebrated violinist-composer Giuseppe Tartini (1692-1770), they are sometimes called Tartini tones. Combination tones arc heard when two pure tones (i.e., produced by simple harmonic sound waves having no partial vibrations and therefore, no overtones), differing in frequency by 50 cycles per second or more, sound together at sufficient intensity. Other more complex wave forms, such as those produced by singing voices, also occasionally produce combination tones. The pitch of any tone is determined by the frequency of vibration of its sound wave. The frequency of a combination tone equals the difference or sum of the original two frequencies or of their multiples. (Where h and l are high and low frequencies and m and n are integers [whole numbers] D = mh - nl and S = mh + nl.) A similar subjective phenomenon, aural overtones, results from the car’s distortion of a single pure tone. The distortions produce frequencies in the ear corresponding to multiples of the original frequency (2f, 31, 4f. . . ), and aural overtones thus have the same pitch as externally produced overtones, auditoryillusionsandsummationtones9:241cCOMBINATORICSANDCOMBINATORIALGEOMETRY4:942, deal with problems of packing, arrangements or designs, problems of selection or choice, permutations and combinations, and some aspects of the theory of probability. The text article covers the history, methods, results, and some unsolved problems of combinatorial theory. Under combinatorial geometry are treated historically important topics, including packing and covering, poly-topes, incidence problems, Holly’s theorem; and methods of combinatorial geometry, including exhausting the possibilities, using extremal properties, utilization of figures with special properties, and use of transformations between different spaces. REFERENCES in other text articles: algebraic structure theory 1:537dEuclidean geometry principles 7: optimization and game theory 13:623cprobability theory and method 14;1104cpuzzles and mathematical theory 13:35lfstatistical theory and method 17:615eRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index: forcombinatorial geometry: see coverin; Euler characteristic: Helly’s theorem; incidence problems; polytopecombinatorics: combination; enumerability: Using problem; purtition; pertmutation R amsey”s. numbers random walk; recurrence relation design: designs; Latin square; matrix graph theory: four colourmap problem; graph theory; homeomorphism; isomorphism; Konigsberg bridge problem; travelling salesman problem COMBINEcomplex farm machine that both cuts and threshes grain. An early primitive combine was a horse-drawn “combination harvester thresher” introduced in Michigan in 1836 and later used in California. Combines were not generally adopted until the 1930s, when tractor-drawn models first came into general use. Self-propelled machines, capable of cutting swaths 8 to 18 feet (2.5 to 5.5 metres) wide appeared in the 1940s. Originally designed to harvest wheal, they came to be used to harvest many other crops. In design, the combine is essentially a binder- type cutting device that delivers the grain to a threshing machine modified to work as it moves across the field. The cutting-gathering component, designed to take the grain with a minimum of straw, is sometimes called the header. A threshing cylinder rubs gram out of the heads against a concave surface. Some grain and chaff go with the straw to the straw deck, on which grain is shaken out and delivered to the cleaning shoe. Some of the grain and chaff goes directly to the cleaning shoe, on which sieves and a blast of air arc used to separate and clean the grain. Alter passing through the air blast, the grain drops into a clean-grain auger that conveys it to an elevator and into a storage tank. Straw drops out of the back of the combine in a windrow for baling or is scattered over the ground by a fanlike spreader. Some combines for use on steeply rolling land have a body supported in a frame by hydraulic cylinders that automatically adjust to keep the body level. cereal agriculture efficiency increase 3:1161f. farm mechanization importance 18:48cmechanization of agriculture 1:338b COMBINED CHIEFS OF STAFFmilitary organization established by the United States and Great Britain during World War II for the determination of strategy and for the day-today conduct of the war Arcadia Conference accomplishments I9: coalition machinery of World War II 19:565c COMBINED EXERCISESor ALL-AROUND, in gymnastics, an event demonstrating a wide range of gymnastic ability, decided by totalling the scores achieved by each competitor in the separate individual events. For men, these are the door exercise, side horse, rings, long- horse vaulting, parallel bars, and high bar; for women, they are the balance beam, uneven parallel bars, vaulting horse, and floor exercise. See also sporting recordCOMBINED PREGNANCY: SEC PREGNANCY COMB JELLY (marine animal): see Ctenophora.                      COMB JOINTjoint used in carpentry whose strength depends mainly on the glue used. COMB POTTERYthe main pottery type of the Korean Neolithic Period (c, 3000 700 BC:), Derived from a Siberian Neolithic prototype, the pottery is made of sandy clay, and its colour is predominantly brown. The vessel form found in early comb pottery is a simple V- shape with a pointed or rounded bottom. The surface is entirely covered with impressed or incised lines, short, slanting, and parallel, and arranged in either horizontal or vertical rows so as to produce a sort of comb pattern. In later pottery, the clay is often tempered with asbestos or tale stone, and the base of the vessel tends to be flattened. The earlier, spacefilling linear design yields to more sparsely placed curvilinear designs consisting of dots At its earlier stage, the pottery was introduced into Kyushu, Japan, resulting in the emergence of the so-called Sobata pottery, a fusion of comb and the local Jomon                                                         COMBRETACEAE: see Terminalia. COMBRETUMgenus of tropical vines, shrubs, and trees with red flowers. Many species are used locally, as leaves in a medicinal tea or to make containers of scented gums and woods; the bark is a source of dyes. It belongs to the family Combretaceae (order Myrtales). economic importance and uses 12:773hCOMB SHELL: see scallop. COMBUSTION AND FLAME 4:954. Combustion is a chemical reaction, in which one of the reactants is commonly oxygen, which is usually accompanied by generation of heat and light in the form of flame. The reaction proceeds very rapidly. Combustion reactions occurring in the gaseous phase generally also emit light and are physically observed in the form of flame. Other physical phenomena that sometimes occur during combustion reactions are explosion and detonation. The text article traces the development of the understanding of the nature of fires and flames from the early speculations of Greek philosophers to contemporary theories of flame propagation. Physical and chemical aspects of combustion reactions, combustion phenomena and classification of flames, flame structure and propagation, explosions, certain special aspects, and applications are treated. REFERENCES in other text articles: agricultural damages and effects 1: Bessemer steel making process 17:645bchemical reaction and change 4:142f passim to 143d. diesel engine design and development 5:              early chemical investigations 14:390fgun-propellant dynamics 1:700d. heating power of natural gas 12:859h. hydrocarbon combustion reactions 9: Lavoisier theory development 10: oxygen reaction characteristics 13: Priestley’s use of phlogiston theory 14:1013hredox concept historical origins 13:804aspectra emission sources 17:4591’spontaneous combustion causes 7:315cStahl’s phlogiston theory 17:566bsteam generator problems and management I7: thermionic device as energy sources I8:289ethermodynamic principles COMBUSTION CHAMBERenclosure designed to contain controlled burning, such as the firebox of a furnace in which coal, oil, or gas is burned to generate steam, or the portion of an internal-combustion engine in which the fuel-air mixture is ignited. boiler designs and handling of fuels 17:626a; illus gasoline engine construction 7:934ajet engine design 10: steam locomotive design illus. COMECON: see Mutual Economic Assistance, Council for. COMEDIA DE CAPA Y ESPADA(Spanish: “cloak and sword drama ), 17th-century Spanish plays of upper middle class manners and inrigue. The name derives from the cloak and sword that were part of the typical street dress of students, sodiers, and cavaliers, the favourite heroes. The type was anticipated by the plays of Bartolome de TorresNaharro, but its popularity was established by the inventive dramas of Lope de Vega and Tirso de Molina. The extremely complicated plots deal with the frustration of an idealized love by the conventionl Spanish pundonor (“point of honour”). The affairs of the lady and her gallant are mirrored or parodied n the actions of the servants; the hero’s valet (the gracioso) also supplies a common-sense commentary n the manners of his masters. After many misunderstandings, duels, renunciations, and false alarmsabout honour, the plays usually end happily with several marriages.literature of the Renaissance 10:1136h. Lope de Vega’s life and works19:40e. Philippine moro moro 17:249; illus. COMEDIE-FRANCAISEofficially entitled LE.THEATRE-FRANCAIS and also known as LA MAISON DE MOLIEREnational theatre of France and the world’s longest established national theatre. After the death of the playwright Mo-liere (1673), his company of actors joined forces with a company playing at the Theatre duMarais, the resulting company being known as the Theatre Guenegaud. In 1680 the company that has srvived as the Comedie-Francaise was founded when the Ciucnegaud company merged with that at te Hotel de Bourgogne, to become the only professional French company then playing in Paris. The French Revolution caused a division of loyalties within the company; and in 1791 one group, led by the reat actor Francois-Joseph Talma, established separate headquarters at the present home of the Comedi-Francaise in what is now the Place de Theatre-Francais in the rue de Richelieu, while the more consrvative group, under the leadership of Rene Mole, remained at the original site as the Theatre de la Natin. The latter organization fell into disfavour with the public, and at least two of its productions provked riots that resulted in the imprisonment for almost a year of the players involved. In 1803 the Comeie- Francaise was again reconstituted, this time under Napoleon’s administration. A decree issued b him while in Moscow (decret de Mos-cou, 1812) established the rules under which the Comedie-Francaise was to function.The organization of the Comedie-Francaise is based on the original Confrerie de la Passion (Confraternity of the Passion), an association of Parisian burghers founded in 1402 for the purpose of presenting rligious plays. Under this type of organization, which prevails to this day, each member holds a share o the profits within a democratically structured unit that allows for shared duties and responsibilities. Membership for admission is granted on the basis of merit. After a year’s trial period, during whichtime the actor makes his formal debut, the member becomes a pensionnaire. or probationary meber, with a fixed salary. After an indefinite period of time, which may range from several weeks to sevral years, he may gain full membership as a societaire, replacing those members who have either died r retired. Retirement with pension is awarded after 20 years of service. Throughout its long history, theComedie-Francaise has exercised a lasting influence on the development of French theatre, arts, and letters. It has given the world some of the theatre’s most illustrious actors: Adrienne Lecouvreur, FrancoisJoseph Talma, Sarah Bernhardt, and Jean-Louis BARRAULT. Although it remains a theatre primarialy ooted in past traditions, the Comedie-Francaise, after the appointment of Pierre Dux as its head in 1970,introduced the work of new playwrights, directors, and stage designers. Bernhardt participation and epulsion 2:862gorigin and current existence I8:259dstaging conventions 17:542COMEDIE HUMAINE. LAtitle used by the French author Honore de Balzac for a collected edition (17 vol., 1842 48; later expande) of his novels and tales, in which he intended to show the complete range of manners and customs in contemporary France by writing of French life in a great variety of geographic, professional, and social settngs. French literature of the century 10:1193dorganization, themes, and critiquc 2:68le  COMEDIE-ITALIENNEFrench name for the Italian commcdia dell’arte used after 1680 to distinguish it from native French theatre, the Comedie-Francaise. Italian commedia dell’arte companies appeared in France from the 16th century and pleased both the courtiers, who understood Italian, and the populace, which enjoyed the improvised antics, dialogue, and pantomime. In 1697, however, their satire was found offensive, and the companies were banished from France.Prior to 1697 the Comedic-Italienne, at the urging of the French audiences, had increasingly interspersed French words, phrases, and sometimes whole scenes into productions. A leader of one company, Giuseppe-Domenico Biancolelli, got official sanction from Louis XIV to use French, and thereafter the Comedie-Italienne became a new market for French dramatists. In 1716, when the company was reinstated in France, they began performing French works by French dramatists, and from that time only the spirit of the commedia dell’arte foreign flavour and the ribaldry, drolleries, pantomime, as well as some of the characters–remained. French actors gradually replaced the Italians; the last great Italian Arlequin (Harlequin) was Carlin Berlamazzi (1710 83). Increasingly their productions turned toward opera-bouffe (comic opera). In 1801 the Comedie-ltalienne merged with a former rival, the Theatre Feydeau, to form the Opera-Comique. and the Italian companies were dissolved. commedia influence on French (theatre 4:984glocal colour scenery on French stage 17:542aCOMEDIE LARMOYANTE (French: “tearful comedy”), 18th-century genre of French sentimental drama, which formed a bridge between the decaying tradition of aristocratic Classical tragedy and the rise of serious bourgeois drama. Such comedies made no pretense of being amusing; virtuous characters were subjected to distressing domestic crises, but even if the play ended unhappily, virtue never went unrewarded. If the heroine died, for example, her “moral” triumph was made clear to the audience. The form is best exemplified in the 40 or so verse plays of Nivelle de La Chaussee, such us Le prejuge a la mode (performed 1735; “Fashionable Prejudice”). The effect of the comedie larmoyante was to blur the distinctions between comedy and tragedy, drive both from the French stage, and form the basis for the drame bourgeals, realistic contemporary comedy heralded by Denis Diderot’s Le Fils naturel (published 1757; performed 1771; Eng. trans., Dorral; or, The Test of Virtue, 1767). English sentimental comedy similarity 18:226fCOMEDO (dermatology): see acne, COMEDY4:958, work of art, usually literary, primarily concerned with man as a social being, rather than as a private person, and having a frankly correctivc purpose. The text article covers comedy mainly as a literary genre but also touches on its manifestations in the other arts under origins and definitions; theories of comedy; kinds of comedy in diverse historical periods; and the comic in Other arts. REFERENCES in other text articles: African theatrical developments 1:253callegory utilization 7:134cAriosto’s style and influence 1:11 51cAristophanes’ development as dramatist 1: ballad and romantic comedy 2:644cBeaumont and Fletcher’s plots and style 2:783cBeckett’s comic vision 2:789hChaplin’s caricature popularity 4:32bChekhov’s early literary work 4:66dclassical distinctions from tragedy 18:588acommedia dell’arte and Old Comedy 18:253acommedia dell’arte form and style 4:979aCorneille’s artistic development 5:179hcostume design in Greece and Rome 17:560bDickens’ farce and comic characters 5:707bdirection in theatre comedy 5:827hGreek and Roman literaturedevelopment 10:1092cGreek Classical satire and staging 18:236gIndian farce plays 17:138cmask in theatrical performances 11:585f; illus. 584mime and pantomime’s historical form 12:211dmodern visual art history 19:477fMolicre’s influence and Restoration drama 5:984dMoliere’s views and styles 12:322amotion picture innovations 12:518corigin and development 18:219bPlautus’ borrowings from Greeks 14:551 gpopular and high dramatic comparison 14:806hpopular theatre’s physical nature 14:813cpuppet theatre development 15:294bsatire’s defination and types 16:269eShakespeare’s irony, comic dialogue, and comic situation 16:621c passim to 627dstylistic criteria of literary genres 2:131ftelevision,and radio program styles 3:3l4gtelevision weekly series 18:126gWilde’s society comedies 19:825aRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index:forcomic genres: see black humour; comedia de capa y espada: comedie larmoyante; comedy of humours; comedy of intrigue; comedy of manners; commedia erudita; farce: Fastnachtsspiel, Feast of Fools; genero chico; harlequinade; slapstickcomic entertainers: clown; fool: juggler: pantomimuscomic styles: high comedy: low comedy comic troupes: comici confidenti: Enfants sans souci. Les: Gelosicharacter types: Miles Gloriosus; soubrette; zanno COMEDY OF ERRORS, THE (first performance 1592 93), early comedy by William Shakespeare, based on numerous mistaken identities that occur when long separated twin masters, who also have twin servants, meet in Ephesus. The plot goes back to Greek New Comedy and was known to Shakespeare through a version by the Roman playwright Plautus, the Menaechmi. literature of the Renaissance 10:1141dsource and dramatic interest 16:621c             COMEDY OF HUMOURSa dramatic genre most closely associated with the English playwrightBen Jonson from the late 16th century. The term derives from the Latin humor (more properly umor), meaning “liquid,” and has nothing to do with the modern usage of humorous to mean amusing. Physicians of the Middle Ages and later believed that the human body held a balance of four liquids, or humours: blood, phlegm, yellow bile (choler), and black bile (melancholy). Properly balanced these humours gave the individual a healthy mind in a healthy body. In his play Every Man Out of his Humour (1599), Jonson explains that the system of humours governing the body may by metaphor bc applied to the general disposition, so that a peculiar quality may so possess a man as to make him act in one way. Jonson’s characters usually represent one humour and, thus unbalanced, are basically caricatures. Shakespeare’s Corporal Nym, in Henry V, is probably a little satire on Jonson’s comedies of humour. (Almost everyone of his speeches is lagged with “... that’s the humour of it.”) didacticism and dramatic style 4:962edramatic depiction of character 4:960edramatic theory and Ben Jonson 5:986bJonson’s dramatic development 10:1141g    COMEDY OF INTRIGUEalso called COMEDY OF SITUATION, comic form in which type characters are involved in complex plots and subplots based on ridiculous and contrived situations with large doses of farcical humour. An exumple of comedy of intrigue is found in Shakespeare’s Comedy of Errors, itself a version of two plays by the Roman comedy writer Plautus (c. 254-184 BC), Menaechmi and Amphitruo, a humorous exploitation of the confusion resulting from twin masters and their twin servants. In the hands of a muster such as Moliere, the comcdy of intrigue often shades into a comedy of manners. Thus, Le Medecin malgre tui (1666; The Doctor in Spite of Himself), which begins as a farce based on the simple joke of mistaking the ne’er-do-well woodcutter Sganarelie for a doctor, gradually becomes a satire on learned pretension and bourgeois credulity as Sganarelie fulfills his role with as good results as a bona fide doctor. COMEDY OF MANNERSa witty, cerebral form of dramatic comedy that depicts and often satirizes the manners and affectations of contemporary society. The plot of such a come dy, usually concerned with an illicit love affair or similarly scandalous matter, is subordinate to the play’s brittle, atmosphere, witty dialogue, and pungent commentary on human foibles. Critics have pointed out that the comedy of manners, usually written by sophisticated authors for members of their own coterie or social class, usually thrives in periods and societies that combine material prosperity and moral latitude. Such was the case in ancient Greece when Menander (c. 342-c. 292 BC) inaugurated New Comedy, the forerunner of comedy of manners. Menander’s smooth style, elaborate plots, and stock characters were imitated by the Roman poets Plautus (c. 254-184 BC) arid Terence (186/185-159 BC), whose comedies were widely known and copied during the Renaissance. One of the greatest exponents of the comedy of manners was Moliere, who satirized the hypocrisy and pretension of 17th-century French society in such plays as L’Ecole des femmes (1662; The School for Wives. 1948) and Le Misanthrope (1666). In England the comedy of manners had its great day during the Restoration period. Although influenced by Ben Jonson’s comedy of humours, the Restoration comedy of manners was lighter, defter, and more vivacious in lone. Playwrights declared themselves against affected wit and acquired follies and satirized these qualities in caricaturc characters with “ticket” names such as Sir Fopling Flutter (in Sir George Etherege’s Man of Mode. 1676) and Lord Foppington (in Sir John Vanbrugh’s Relapse: or, Virtue in Danger, 1697). The masterpieces of the genre were the witty, cynical, and epigrammatic plays of William Wycherley (The Country-Wife, 1675) and William Congreve (The Way of the World, 1700). In the late 18th century, Oliver Goldsmith (She Sloops to Conquer, 1773) and Richard Brinsley Sheridan (The Rivals, 1775; The School for Scandal, 1777) revived the form. The tradition of elaborate, artificial plotting and epigrammatic dialogue was carried on by the Anglo-Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895). In the 20th century, the comedy of manners reappeared in the witty, sophisticated drawing-room plays of the British dramatists Noel Coward and Somerset Maugham. authors and style 18:226cCongreve’s mastery of Restoration comedy 4:1132ddramatic style and satiric aim 4:962gtheatre revival in Restoration 5:984e COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS4:967 (b. JAN AMOS KOMENSKY March 28, 1592, Nivnice, Moravia, now in Czechoslovakia–d. Nov. 15, 1670, Amsterdam), educational reformer and religious leader, remembered mainly for his approach to teaching. Abstract of text biography. Having studied for the ministry at the University of Heidelberg, Germany, Comenius, as a minister, was forced to flee from Bohemia in 1618 when the Thirty Years’ War broke out. While in hiding he wrote in Czech an allegory generally known as Labyrint sveta a Raj srdce (Eng. trans., The Labyrinth of the World and the Paradise of the Heart). It became a major source of spiritual consolation to the exiled Moravians. Settling in Leszno, Pol., in 1628, Comenius thought about the rebuilding of Bohemian society through educational reforms, including new, more exciting teaching methods and the learning of Latin to facilitate the study of European culture. Janua Linguarum Reserata (1631; Eng. trans.. Gate of Tongues Unlocked, 1633?) revolutionized Latin teaching and was translated into 16 languages. After briefly attempting to set up a college of social reform in London (1641-42), Comenius went to Sweden to participate in educational reform efforts. His projects there included a series of graded Latin textbooks, widely acclaimed throughout Europe. In 1648, after having returned to Poland, he was consecrated presiding bishop of the Moravians, the last of the Bohemian-Moravian clergy to hold this office. In Orbis Sensualium Pictus (1658; Eng. trans.. The Visible World in Pictures, 1659) he attempted to dramatize Latin through pictures illustrating Latin sentences; it was popular in Europe for two centuries. When Leszno was invaded and destroyed, Comenius escaped to Amsterdam, where he remained until his death. In 1657 he published Opera Didactica Omnia, a collection of his writings on education. REFERENCES in other text articles Czechoslovakian educational system 5:418fErasmus educational philosophy heritage 6: international education beginnings 9:736fKokoschka’s influence and admiration .10:500fliterary style, them’:s, and works 10:1163bliterature and child’s needs 4:229dMoravian Church’s early leadership 12:436cphilosophy and pedagogy 6:349f COMEPHORIDAEfamily of the fish order Scorpaenifortnes classification and general features 16:               COMERAGH MOUNTAINSrange in County Waterford, Ireland, extending from the River Suir Valley near Clonmel to the coaslal lowland north of Stradbally. Their directional trend is northwest-southeast, and their peaks rise above 2.000 ft (600 m), with the highest point being 2,597 ft (792 m). The uplands have been heavily glaciated, resulting in a series of impressive steep-walled corries (ice-scooped basins) including Coumshingaun, a corrie with craggy sides 1,000 ft high around a lake. The mountains are of sandstone and in effect form a single range with the neighbouring Monavullaghs. 52° 15’ N, 7°32’ W

map, Ireland 9:882 COMERIOtown and municipality, east central Puerto Rico, in the Cordillera Ccntral, on the Rio de La Plata just west of Caguas. Pop. (1970) town, 6,297. 18° 13’ N, 66° 14’ Warea and population table 15:261map, Puerto Rico 15:263                (title of nobility): see count. 4:969, a minor constituent of the solar system having relatively very small mass. The text article covers the history of the observation of comets from ancient to modern times, mentioning some famous examples; the types of their orbits and periodicities and the methods used to determine them; their nature (appcarance, brightness, and spectra), the variations in these properties as comets approach and recede from the Sun, and the attempts that have been made to deduce the structure of comets from observed data; and theories concerning their origin and evolution. REFERENCES in other text articles: astronomical research methods 2:248dcrater shape and size 12:52cHalley’s Comet and Newtonian system 14:388cHalley’s description of parabolic curve 8:557cinfrared source research 9:582bJupiter gravitational family 10:352cmeteor shower association 12:37b; tablesolar system structure and origin 16:1030dsolar wind interaction with comet tails 9:788dsolar wind’s analogous mechanism 17:804hspectroscopic research methods 2:242aUranus formation theory 18:1038fRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index: Arend-Roland, Comet; Biela’s Comet; Encke’s Comet; Halley’s Comet; Ikeya-Seki, Comet; Morehouse, Comet     COMETfirst European merchant steamship introduced in 1812. steamship development importance 18:654d              CORNEL Ilirst commercial jet manufactured by the British aircraft pioneer Sir Geoffrey De Havilland in 1952. early use and discontinuation 18:635b COMFIT PANa copper or stainless steel pan that is rotated and used for coating nuts, fruits, nougats, or certain kinds of paste with sugar or chocolate. candy production methods and equipment 4:1084b COMFORTAlex(ander) (b. Feb. 10, 1920. London), poet, author, and gerontologist. He was educated at Cambridge and at London Hospital, where he qualified in medicine. His first published verse was France and Other Poems (1942). During World War II Comfort was a conscientious objector. His poems, published in The Song of Lazarus (1945), are a powerful statement of his opposition to big government and his insistence on individual moral commitment. Comfort’s theories on aging are expressed in The Biology of Senescence (1956) and The Process of Ageing (1964), an introduction to gerontology for the layman. He advocates greater freedom in sexual behaviour in books ranging from the scholarly Sexual Behaviour In Society (1950) to the best-selling Joy of Sex (1972) and its sequel, More Joy (1974), an examination of the psychological and sociological aspects of a free sexual life-style.COMFORT INDEX (temperature-humidity index): see discomfort index. COMFREYherb plants of the Eurasian genus cially the medicinal common comfrey (S. officinale), used to treat wounds and a source of a gum for treatment of wool. The coiled sprays of comfrey blooms, which are bell-like, deeply parted, live-lobed, and hanging, are usually pollinated by bees. The fruits arc four oval nutlets. Common comfrey is about 90 centimetres (3 feet) tall, with winged, hairy stems and blue, purplish, or yellow flowers.COMICA INNAMORATAstock character of the comical female lover in the Italian commcdia dell’arte; common names for this character were Aurelia, Isabella, Gincvra, Flaminia, and Lucinda. commedia character development 4:980e COMICI CONFIDENTIEnglish CONFIDENT COMEDIANS, two companies of the Italian commedia dell ‘arte that were instrumental in extending the reputation of this form of improvised theatre throughout Europe. The first company, which performed in France and Spain as well as in Italy, was formed about 1574 under the leadership of the commedia actress Vittoria Piisimi and her actor husband, Giovanni Pellesini, who had created the mask of the character Pedrolino. Early in the 17th century, with the demise of the Gelosi, the leading commcdia company, it became the favourite of the Mantuan court. The second troupe, which travelled principally in Italy, was established about 1610 under the leadership of the producer-director Flaminio Scala and the patronage of Giovanni de’ Medici. After its dissolution (c. 1621) a number of its actors became associated with the French version of the commedia dell’arte, the Comddie-Italienne in Paris. COMIC OPERAor LIGHT OPERA, general designation for musical plays with light subject matter and happy endings. The dialogue is usually spoken, rather than sung. In addition to operetta and musical comedy, types of comic opera include Italian opera buffa (which has sung dialogue), German Singspiel, English ballad opera, and Spanish tonadilla and zarzuela. The French opera comique originated as comic opera, but later dealt with serious subject matter Italian origins through 20th century 13: passim to 592freaction against opera serin style 12:712bRossini’s opera buffa innovations 15: RELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and Index: ballad opera; musical comedy; opera bulla; opera comique; operetta: Sinespiel; tonadilla; zurzuelu COMIC RELIa literary device whereby a serious narrative is interrupted by a comic scene, effectively lowering the dramatic tension. Its function is to permit an even stronger emotional affect when the serious action continues. COMIC STRIPsee. caricature, cartoon, and comic strip COMILLAalso spelled KUMILLA, administrative headquarters of Comilla district, Chitthe Gumti River, a tributary of the Meghna. Connected by road and rail with Dacca and Chittagong, Comilla is a centre for the collection of hides and skins and has a thermal power station, a match factory, and jute mills. The main cottage industries are cane und bamboo basketry, woodworking, and cotton weaving. The town is distinguished by the size and number (over 400) of the tanks (water reservoirs) in its environs; the Dharmasagar tank, measuring one mile in circumference, was constructed by a Tippera raja in the 15th century. Constituted a municipality in 1864, the town contains a library, a teacher-training college, and eight government colleges, including the village development academy of Comilla Government Victoria College affiliated with the University of Chittacong. Comilla district (area 2,594 sq mi [6,718 sq km]), formerly Tippera district, consists chiefly of a level alluvial plain intersected by rivers and inundated during the rainy season. To the cast arc low, forest-clad hills that form the most westerly of the Hill Tippera (Tripura) ranges. Rice, jute, oilseeds, betel nuts, chilies, and vegetables are the chief crops; some tea and cotton are grown on the hill slopes. Pottery, cane and bamboo baskets, mats, and small boats are the products of the main cottage industries. Natural-gas deposits were discovered at Bakhrabad in 196 The district formed part of the Hill Tippera princely state until 1733, when it was annexed by the Mughals. In 1765 its Passed to the British Last India Company. op. (1972 est.) city, 65,400; (1974 prelim.) district, 5,8 23°28’ N, 91°10’ Earea and population table 2: map, Bangladesh 2                               COMINES, PHILIPPE (statesman and chronicler): see Commynes, Philippe de. COMINFORMname given in the West to the Communist Information Bureau, an agency of international Communism founded under Soviet auspices in 1947 and dissolved by Soviet initiative in 1956. The Communist Information Bureau was founded at Wilcza Gora, Pol., in September 1947, with nine members–the Communist parties of the U.S.S.R., Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia, France, and Italy. The most vehement supporters of the Cominform were the Yugoslav Communists under the leadership of Tito; therefore, Belgrade was selected as the scat of the organization. Mounting tension, however, between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union (see National Communism) led ultimately to the expulsion of Tito’s party from the Cominform in June 1948, und the seat of the bureau was moved to Bucharest. The Cominform’s activities consisted mainly of publishing propaganda to encourage international Communist solidarity. The French and Italian Communist parties were ineffective in carrying out the chief task assipned to them by the Cominform–to obstruct the implementation of the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine. Like the Comintern, the Cominform served more as a tool of Soviet policy than as an agent of international revolution On April 17, 1956, in a gesture that was part of a Soviet program of reconciliation with Yugoslavia, the Soviets disbanded the Cominform. anti Tite propaganda campaign 2: Communist states’ relations and power struggle 4:1023cSoviet post war foreign policy 9:764          COMING-OF-AGE RITESrites of passage that mark the attainment of social maturity. They are often and somewhat incorrectly         al maturity (puberty) docs not necessarily coincide with the social or cultural definition of maturity. characteristics and observance 13:1046bNorth American Plateau Indian practices 13:229aNorthwest Coast Indian rites 13:252gpractices and beliefs 13:1050c South American forest culture practices 17:122eSouth American nomad passage rites 17:115evoting and puberty rites 7:200hestern Sudan initiation ceremonies 19:798c COMINOMaltese KEMMUNA, one of the Maltese islands, in the Mediterranean, separated from Malta (southeast) and Gozo (northwest) by narrow channels. It has an area of one sq mi (3 sq km). Comino was the site of a fortress of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem; a tower (1618) of the fortress survives. Beeswax, honey, and grapes are produced, and goats and sheep arc raised. Pop. (latest census) fewer than 2,000. 36°00’ N, 14°20’ EMalta’s location and importance 11:391dmap, Malta 11:391Mediterranean geography and hydrography 11:855b COMINO, CAPEItalian CAPO COMINO, easternmost point of Sardinia, on the Tyrrhenian Sea. map, Italy 9:1088map, Sardinia 16:244COMINTERNsee International, Third. COMISKEY, CHARLES A. (1858-1931), U.S. professional baseball player and owner, founded the Chicago Club of the American League in 1900, now known as the White Sox. White Sox formation 2:731g                COMISOtown, Ragusa province, southeastern Sicily, Italy, at the foot of the Monti Iblei just west of Ragusa city. The white limestone of the district has been used in numerous local churches. There is a castle of the Naselli, from which the family tomb was transferred in 1517 to the 13th-century church of S. Francesco. Other churches include those of the Madre, S.S. Annunziata, and S. Gregorio, which has a Byzantine baptistry. Christian catacombs are in the neighbourhood. Manufactures include textiles, soap, vases, and other domestic commodities. Pop. (1971 prelim.) 26,488. 36° 56’ N, 14°37’ ECOMITalist-proccssing programming language developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. computer list processing methods 4:l056e COMITANin full COMITAN DE DOMINOUEZ, city, east central Chiapas stale, southeastern Mexico, formerly known as Comitan de las Mores because of its profusion of tropical flowers. The city lies at 5,020 ft (1,536 m) above sea level on the central plateau of Chiapas and east-southeast of Tuxtla Gutierrez, the state capital. It is a commercial centre lor an agricultural (corn [maize], bananas, and avocados), forestry, and livestock-raising region, the principal industries are distilleries and textile mills. Only 52 mi (83 km) from the Guatemalan border, the city has a customs house. It is on the Mexico City-Guatemala City link of the Pan-American Highway and also has an airfield. Pop. (1970) 21,249. 16° 15’ N, 92°08’ Wmap, Mcxico 12:68COMITATUSinRepublican Rome, a retinue or elite company of one of the army commanders. A comitatus was made up in the assembly when one of the leading men announced that he needed followers to accompany him on a foray into enemy territory. Those who were attracted by the proposal (usually the more well-to-do warriors) would volunteer their services, and, having done so, public opinion would not allow them to withdraw, At that time the relationship between leader and followers was a temporary one, lasting only for the duration of the raid. Later, the arrangement became permanent; the leader fed the comitatus and kept the company about him in peace as well as in war. He supplied the members with their weapons and horses and shared with them the spoils of war. A military force was thus established over which the other warriors had little or no control. Members of the comitatus were willing to fight to the death for their leader; it was a disgrace for ihem to survive him. Major ref. 8:43dLow Countries administrative institutions 11:134hCOMITEINTERNATIONALOLYMPIQUEseeInternationalOlympicCommittee.COMITE MARITIME INTERNATIONAL (CMI), also known as INTERNATIONAL MARITIME COMMITTEE, international organization which drafts conventions for activities dealing with international shipping. maritime law code unification 11:5031f COMITEREVOLUTIONNAIRE D’UNITE ET D’ACTION (Algeria): see Front de Liberation Nationale. COMITIAin the ancient Roman Republic, assemblies of the people called in groups by a magistrate who had the right to conduct business with them. Comitia had to meet on an appropriate site (comitium) and day (comitialis) after the auspices (omens) hud been determined. In strict parlance, an assembly to which only a part of the people was called was a concilium; an assembly of the entire people, not called in groups, was a contio. The comitia were limited to voting on proposals presented by magistrates without amendments. Voting was by group; the majority in each group determined its vote. The Roman people were organized into three principal kinds of groups: curiae (parts into which Romulus divided the Roman people; each part contained 10 gentes), centuriae (centuries, originally Rome’s basic military units), and tribus (tribes). The corresponding three major comitia were the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa. The formal sanction of the patricians in the Senate was requisite for measures voted by the comitia. The Comitia Curiata dated from the time of the Roman kings; under the republic after c. 500 BC its chief functions were to confer the imperium (supreme executive power) on magistrates, and to witness wills, adoptions, and the inauguration of priests, By late republican times its importance had dwindled in the face of the rising importance of the Comitia Centuriata. This body, instituted about 450 BC as a military assembly, decided issues of war and peace, enacted legislation, elected magistrates, and tried Roman citizens charged with capital crimes. Its organization gave greater representation to the rich than to the poor. Voting began with the centuries of the wealthiest citizens, and when a majority of 98 centuries (out of a total of 193) had been reached, the voting stopped. The Comitia Plebis Tributu (attended only by plebeians) was not originally a comitia but a concilium. From 287 BC (Lex Hortensia), when its acts (plebiscita) were accorded the same validity as laws passed in comitia, it was regarded as a comitia. It elected the tribunes of the plebs and the plebeian acdiles (officials who protected the interest of that class), and tried noncapital offenses. The Comitia Populi Tributa wus an assembly parallel to the Comitia Plcbis Tributa but differed in that patricians also could attend. Voting in these tribal assemblies was in principle more democratic than in the Centuriate Assembly since the tribes were not organized according to wealth; but the upper classes were preponderant in the more numerous rural tnbes. The Comitia Piebis Tributa legislated, conducted lesser trials, and elected minor officials. The territorial expansion of the Roman state decreased the opportunities of many citizens to participate in the assemblies, Moreover, the oligarchy of the later republic blocked reform legislation. The emperor Tiberius, who reigned AD 14-37, gave the assemblies voting functions to the Senate. By the end of the 1st century AD both their judicial and legislative functions had ceased to exist. Centuriata and Tributa voting rights and membership 15:1097cCuriata legislative and judicial rights 15: 1087a COMITIUMbuilding of ancient Rome that was the voting or meeting place of the citizens. Classical history and layout 15:l078gCOMMAin music, slight difference in frequency (and therefore pitch) occuring when a note of a scale, say E in the scale of C, is derived according to different systems of tuning. There are two commonly cited commas, the Pythagorean comma and the comma of Didymus, or syntonic comma. In Pythagorean tuning, the intervals of the scale arc derived from natural fifths (the interval that occurs between the second and third tones of the harmonic series; see overtone). When natural fifths are constructed in sequence, as from C to G lo D. . ., a circle back to C (=B#) occurs: ...A#. E#. B#, This Bit, however, instead of being exactly in tune with C, is slightly higher, by .24 of a semitone. This dtfference, which is audible, is the Pythagorean comma. Just intonation derives all intervals from natural fifths and natural thirds (the interval between the fourth and fifth tones of the harmonic series). A natural third is slightly lower than the third derived by Pythagorean tuning, which is disagreeable to Western cans. The difference is the comma of Didymus, or syntonic comma, and equals .22 of a semitone. Pythagorean tuning dissonant intervals 18:7411     COMMA CATEGORYin algebra, category that can be formed whenever one has two functors (q.v.) with a common codomain. Commit categories have been used to give a description of adjoint functors (that is, free of set theoretic concepts). They are often used to exhibit universal constructions as initial objects of an appropriate category. COMMAGENEdistrict in northern ancient Syria (modern south central Turkey) bounded by Cilicia on the west and Cappadocia on the north. Its eastern boundary on the Euphrates, at the conjunction of several routes over the Taurus Mountains, gave Commagene a strategic position between the Roman and Parthian empires. Commagene broke free from the decaying Seleucid Empire about 162 BC. Its king, Antiochus I (c. 69-c. 34 BC), by adroitly playing off Rome against Parthia, brought the kingdom to its zenith–a fact attested by the splendid mausoleum built by Antiochus to his own memory on the peak of Nimrud Dag. Commagene maintained a precarious independence until annexed by Rome in ad 17. After a brief restoration (38-72), it was permanently incorporated into the Roman province of Syria. mystery rites and sacred kingship 12:780gScleucid Kingdom relationship 16: Urartian territorial expansion 18:1040a COMMANDANTcommander of a single place or body of men, such as a military school or training unit, or of a larger organization such as a naval district in the United States. The rank of a commandant depends upon the size. and importance of his command: in the British army a colonel commandant is the senior officer of a regiment; in the French army a commandant is the commanding officer of a battalion, a rank equivalent to major; and the commandant of the United States Marine Corps is a four-star general. Headquarters commandant is a special use of the word denoting a staff officer in charge of the internal administration of a military headquarters, often with emphasis on maintenance and security of buildings and grounds. COMMAND ECONOMYeconomic system in which the means of production arc publicly owned and economic activity is controlled by a central authority that assigns quantitative production goals and allots raw materials to productive enterprises. In such a system, determining the proportion of total product used for investment rather than consumption becomes a centrally made political decision. After this decision has been made, the central planners work out the assortment of goods to be produced and the quotas for each enterprise. Consumers may influence their decisions indircctly if the planners take into consideration the surpluses and shortages that have developed in the market. The only direct choice made by consumers, however, is among the commodities already produced. Prices are also set by the central planners, but they do not serve, as in a market economy, as signals to producers of goods to increase of decrease production. Instead, they are used mainly as instruments of the central planners in their efforts to reconcile the total demand for consumer goods with the supply available, allowing also for revenues to the state. The central authority in a command economy assigns production goals in terms of physical units and allocates physical quantities of raw materials to enterprises. The process for a large economy with millions of products is extremely complex and has encountered a number of difficulties in practice. Efforts have been made in the Soviet Union and other countries to improve the planning and management of their command economics, but many difficulties remain. Central planning of this kind is not without advantages, however; it is able to mobilize resources quickly on a national scale if necessary, and it can virtually eliminate inflation and unemployment by centrally determining the level of investment and production. C/. capitalism; market Socialism. art patronage and work quality 2:1 10ceconomic system forms 6:275aSoviet economic planning stages 6:257c COMMANDERnaval officer ranking just below captain and above lieutenant commander. A commander corresponds to a lieutenant colonel in the army. He generally is the commanding officer of an intermediate-size vessel or he- may be the executive officer of a larger vessel. COMMANDER BASINsubmarine depression in the Bering Sea. 57°00’ N, 168°00EBering Sea map 2:845                                  COMMANDER ISLANDS (Russian S.F.S.R.): see Komandorskye Ostrova. COMMANDMENT KEEPERS OF THE LIVING GOD, THEor BLACK JEWS or HARLEM. religious cult founded by Wentworth D. Matthew. Negro cults’ beliefs 12:943f                                                      COMMANDMENTS,TENsee Ten Commandments. COMMANDOmilitary unit–roughly equivalent to an infantry battalion–consisting of men specially trained to employ guerrilla-like shock tactics ranging from hand to hand combat to hit-and-run raids. They originated with the Boers in South Africa, where a commando was the administrative and tactical unit “commandeered” by law. Each commando was formed from the military-aged burghers of an electoral district. COMMA OF DIDYMUS (music): see comma, COMMEDIA DELL’ARTE4:979, Italian theatrical form that flourished throughout Europe from the 16th through the 18th century. Performed by professional actors who assumed the roles of stock characters, commedia dell’arte was based on the ability of the actors commedia and outlines in detail the basic elements of the productions–the action, characters, costumes, and plots. It further gives a history of the major commedia companies, their travels and influence, the decline of the form, and the modern revivals of the commedia, REFERENCES IN OTHER TEXT ARTICLES: CLASSICAL COMEDY’S INFLUENCE 4:962ECOSTUME CONVENTIONS 17:561EIMPROVISATION’S INFLUENCE ON WESTERN COMEDY 5:984AITALIAN LITERATURE DEVELOPMENT 10:1174HKABUKI THEATRE RESEMBLANCE OF STRUCTURE 10:367HMASK DESIGN AND USE IN ROMAN COMEDIES 11:586AMIME AND PANTOMIME AS COMEDY 12:212FORIGIN, ACTING, AND CHARACTERS 18:223DPERFORMERS AND STAGE REQUIREMENTS 18:246BPROFESSIONAL ACTING BEGINNINGS 1:60ASLAGING, ORIGIN, AND POPULARITY 17:5.18BTHEATRICAL MAKEUP’S EARLY DEVELOPMENT 17.565ATRADITION, STYLISTIC SOURCES, AND PRODUCTION 18:257C PASSIM TO 259HWATTEAU’S INSPIRATION FOR PAINTINGS 19:663CRELATED ENTRIES IN THE READY REFERENCE AND INDEX: FARacting companies: see comici confidenti: Gelosi character types: Miles Gloriosus: soubrette: zan nocomic style: farce: improvisation, theatrical; slapstickdramatic form: burla; harlequinade: lazzo staging, platform stagestock characters: Brighella; Capitano; Columbine: Dottore; Harlequin; Pantaloon; Pedrolino; Scapin; Scaramoucheother: clown           COMMEDIA ERUDITA16th-century Italian dramatic form that, unlike its theatrical contemporary, the vernacular and improvisational commedia dell’arte, followed scripts written in Latin or Italian based on scholarly works of ancient Roman and earlier Italian authors. Because the language was not easily comprehensible to the general public, these plays were performed for the nobility usually by nonprofessional actors. Sources for commcdia erudita included the comedies of the Roman dramatists Plautus and Terence and works of the 14th-century Italian Humanist Giovanni Boccaccio. Other dramas were contributed by Ludovico Ariosto, considered the best writer of early Italian vernacular comedy and a principal figure in the establishment of this literary form; the philosopher-playwright Giambat-tista della Porta, author of a number of stinging satires; and Niccolo Machiavelli, whose La Mandrdgola (1524; “The Mandrake”) was one of the outstanding comedies of the century. Themes, motifs, situations, and the use of stock characters by the commedia crudita greatly influenced the commcdia dell’arte, whose repertoires, especially in northern Italy, resembled the commedia erudita in their tight structures based on the three dramatic unities (time, place, action). classical comedy’s influence 4:962ecommedia dell’arte reliance on text 4:979c COMMELINALESan order of monocotyledonous flowering plants containing 4 families, 57 genera, and about 1,050 species of mostly tropical and subtropical weak-stemmed herbs. The spiderwort family (Commelinaceae) is the largest and most important of the order. It includes, among its 38 genera and approximately 700 species, the following genera, which provide species grown as garden and indoor ornamentals: the spiderworts (Trades- canlia, 60 species), including the common spiderwort (T. virginiana) and one of the wandering Jew plants (T. fluminensis); the dayflowcrs (Commelina, 230 species), of which only 3 are grown ornamentally (C. coelcstis, C. diffusa, and C. erecta) for their blue flowers; Dichorisandra (35 species), especially D. mosaica and D. thyrsiflora, both grown as blue-flowered foliage plants; Rectanthera (2 species, formerly Spironema), especially R. fragrans, a fragrant, waxy-white-flowered hanging basket plant; the oyster plant, or boat lily (Rhoeo discolor), grown as a potted plant for its purple-coloured leaves; and the zebra plants (Zebrina, 4 or 5 species), especially the second plant known as the wandering Jew (Z. pendula), which has reddish-purple (lowers enclosed in a pair of boat-shaoed bracts (leaflike structures)The largest genera in addition to the ornamental ones above include. Aneilema (100 species), Cyanotis (50 species), Murdannia (50 spccies), I’alisota (25 species), Floscopa (20 species), Tripogartdra (20 species), and Pollia (16 species). The second largest family of the order is the yellow-eyed grass family (Xyridaceae), which has 2 genera (Xyris, 250 species; and Achlyphlla, one specics). It consists of small, tufted, rushlike marsh plants thai mostly grow in the tropics and subtropics of the Americas. Species of Xyris are grown as garden ornamentals, but otherwise the family is of little economic importance. The family Rapateaceae contains 16 genera and about 80 species of perennial (long-lived) herbs that grow from fleshy rootstocks and have leaves with a characteristic 90° lengthwise twist. The plants grow in the dense forests of tropical South America and extreme western tropical Africa. The largest genera are Slegolepis (23 specks), Rapatea (20 species), and Saxofriderica (9 specics). The smallest family of the order is the bog- moss family (Mayacaceae); it has only one genus (Mayaca) with 10 species of freshwater aquatic mosslike herbs, which have narrow leaves with a single midvein and two teeth or notches at the tips. The plants grow in springs, ponds, and streams in the southeastern United States, Central America, and northern South America. One species is found in tropical Africa. angiosperm features and classsification 1:884eT. virginica seedling morphology and germination, illus. 2 16:481 COMMENDAMSin English law, permission to hold two or more church offices simultaneously. In 1616 Sir Edward Coke, lord chief justice of England, and other judges ignored a royal injunction that they should take no action upon a case involving this right until the king’s pleasure was known. They were called before King James I and his council, and ordered to obey the injunction. Coke refused to submit, and the case was one of the factors leading to a subsequent attack on him by the privy council and Francis Bacon, acting on the King’s behalf. James I’s espousal of royal prerogative 3:241b COMMENSALISMrelationship between two or more species involved in a mutual association in the interest of nutrients, shelter, support, and locomotion, or transportation. The species involved in the relationship may benefit from the association without hanming each other. The commensal (the species that benefits from the association) may he either external, such as the remora (a bony fish that attaches itself to a shark or swordfish), or internal, such as the micro-organisms found in the digestive tracts of animals. The dependence of commensals upon other organisms for nutrients is termed allotrophy. annelid worm examples and functioning 1:931cbiotic interactions and natural balance 2:1049c; table 1045bug commensal with termites 8:848cchemoreception and host finding 4:176hcnidarian symbiotic relationships 4:770acoastal animals exhibiting mutual sharing 4:806fcommunity interactions and symbiosis 4:1029acrabs living with plants and animals 5: disease and pathogenic bacilli 5:838centoproct association with aquatic organisms 6:895bhuman bacterial population 9:533gpositive interactions of populations 14:838fsymbiotic relationships in echinoderms 6:181ctermite interaction with other animals 9:1052c COMMENSALITY, CASTEan important criterion of the extent of a caste in India and its relative ranking in the local community. One of the central features of the caste system of traditional Hindu society is the degree to which mutual dining restrictions are observed among the caste groups of a community. Under commensality fall two related, though distinct, forms of social behaviour: the actual eating together at the same occasion, the same tune, and the same table; and the giving and accepting by caste groups of different foods. In its strict sense, a group is commensal if its members accept cooked food from each other’s kitchens and also that which is prepared by each other’s members. As dining out is not a widespread social phenomenon, the occasions for true commensality arc infrequent. A typical occasion is a caste or subcaste event, such as a wedding. If, however, a higher caste member is invited, pains arc taken that the specific food items attain to the degree of purity he ordinarily maintains; hence, such feasts arc often prepared by Brahmin cooks. If rank differences between castes are too wide, the higher custe person either refuses to take the food or is served separately; a lower castc person invited by the caste similarly is served separately or at a different time. In the same wedding context, if a marriage is hyper- gamous, the bridegroom being of a higher caste, he and his family may initially show reluctance to accept food and be persuaded by a present from the bride’s father; the latter will accept nothing in return but the higher status bestowed on the bride by the hypergamy. Food in northern India is essentially of two kinds: raw (kacca) and well-cooked (pakka). Raw food is freely interchangeable; a Brahmin officiating al a ritual will accept his fee in kind in the form of raw ingredients. This may take the form of the raw ingredients for the festive meal itself, which he is then left to cook for himself, since his patron’s kitchen may not be considered .sufficiently pure to allow him to lake a prepared meal from it. Similarly acceptable are fruits and nuts. The basic staples, rice or flour cakes, are kacca dishes, the quality of purity of which is more vulnerable to degrees of pollution, and these foods are less readily accepted. More acceptable are dishes that have been prepared with dairy products (pakka) or cooked in ghee (clarified butter), because the gifts of a cow have a purifying influence. Water is fairly freely accepted, except in southern India, where caste exchanges are generally far more restricted. In southern India, too, the variety of foodstuffs that can be the object of gift and acceptance is far more restricted. The acceptance of food provides a clear index of the hierarchy in a given community. At the top of this hierarchy are orthodox Brahmins, who might not accept food even from members of their own lineage when they arc engaged in certain ritual undertakings. Lower castes may offer food if it has been prepared by a Brahmin cook. These castes themselves admire the purity of Brahmin cooking, hence many restaurant keepers in the cities are Brahmins, and Brahmin coffeehouses and restaurants abound. Generally, the flesh of cows is banned for the caste Hindu. Pork is the next item to be banned. The higher the caste, the greater the abhorrence felt or professed for the eating of animals, which is looked upon as the consumption of cadavers. Although there is an element of dietary hygiene discernible in the commensal restrictions, the overall effect is to demarcate degrees of purity and pollution of caste groups in a community. The restrictions are dictated by a group’s desire to maintain, or gain, a higher degree of ritual purity. See also pollution, Hindu. COMMENSURABLE AND INCOMMENSURABLEIN MATHEMATICS, TERMS THAT REFER TO THE PROPERTY OF COMMON MEASURE OF TWO QUANTITIES OR THE LACK OF THAT PROPERTY. IF A MEASURE–SOME UNIT OF LENGTH, FOR EXAMPLE–IS CONTAINED AN INTEGRAL NUMBER OF TIMES IN TWO QUANTITIES THEN THEY ARE SAID TO BE COMMENSURABLE. TWO REAL NUMBERS WILL BE COMMENSURABLE ONLY IF THEIR RATIO IS A RATIONAL NUMBER. DISCOVERY BY HIPPASUS 14:252EEUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY PRINCIPLES 7:1100HEUDOXUS’ THEORY OF PROPORTION 6:1021EHISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GEOMETRY 11:654DPROJECTIVE GEOMETRY FORMULATION PROBLEM 7:1120HREAL ANALYSIS PRINCIPLES 1:773D COMMENTARIES ON THE LAWS OF ENGLANDBY SIR WILLIAM BLACKSTONC, DESCRIPTIONS OF ENGLISH LAW BASED ON BLACKSTONE’S LECTURES AT OXFORD, PUBLISHED BETWEEN 1765 AND 1769. FAMOUS FOR THEIR LITERARY QUALITY, THE COMMETARIES FORMED THE INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH LAW FOR GENERATIONS OF STUDENTS. BENTHAM’S CRITICISM OF BLACKSTONE 2: COMMON LAW DEVELOPMENT 4:L00LDHALE’S CIVIL LAW ANALYSIS ADOPTED 8.555DPUBLICATION, CONTENT, AND CRITICISM 2:1098H COMMENTATORa person who presents news and events in television or radio news productions, usually with persoal analysis. performer e relationship, table 1 18:124 COMMENTATORSsecular people given ecclesiastical benefices as trustees only. Roman Law interpretation 6: 1116h COMMERCE CLAUSEArticle I, section 8, of the U.S. Constitution, authorizing Congress “To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with Indian Tribes.” This clause has provided the chief doctrinal basis for the extension of the power of the federal government over the economy. In the formative years of the republic, the Supreme Court, under Chief Justice John Marshall, took a broad view of federal power under this clause, nullifying some state laws of taxation and navigation on the ground that they discriminated against interstate commerce, and upholding the supreme power of Congress to regulate in this area. As new methods of interstate transportation and communication came into use, ranging from transcontinental railroads and the telegraph to trucking, radio, the airplane, and television, the court interpreted the national power to keep pace with the times. The clause came to be construed to empower Congress to regulate business, labour, and agriculture when they were engaged not merely directly, but even indirectly, in interstate commerce. constitutional division of powers 5:92a COMMERCIALin radio and television, advertising message before, during, or after a program. advertising media development 18:126hCOMMERCIAL ARBITRATIONSEE ARBITRATION. COMMERCIAL AVIATIONair transportation service provided to the public by scheduled and supplemental airlines. Scheduled carriers provide service to a given number of points according to an established and published schedule; supplemental carriers offer transportation under charier contracts or in accordance with traffic demands. aircraft design and operation 1:378h               rriage-of-goods law 3:965dtory and development 18:633ctransport growth after World War II 7:403cS. commercial air transport origin 7:395c NMEREIAL BANKbank with the power to ke loans that, at least in part, eventually come new demand deposits. Because a nmereial bank is required to hold only action of its deposits as reserves, it can use of the money on deposit to extend loans, hen a borrower receives a loan, his checking count is credited with the amount of the total demand deposits are thus incesed until the loan is repaid. As a group, commercial banks are able to expand or ntract the money supply by creating new demand deposits. he name commercial bank was first used to licate that the loans extended were short- m loans to businesses, though loans later  extended to consumers, governments, d other nonbusiness institutions as well. In neral, the assets of commercial banks tend be more liquid and carry lass risk than the sets held by other financial intermediaries. modern commercial bank also offers a de variety of additional services to its cusmers, including savings deposits, safe deposit xes, and trust scrviccs. Major ref. 2:699hbusiness financing operations 7:299ffederal securities held in 1940 69 15:196g; table 197ublic-debt funding in unemployment periods 15:1 89g passim to 193hUnited Kingdom financial structures 18:879h  COMMERCIAL HOUSE FOR THE WEST INDIESpanish trading house): see Casa de Conitacion. COMMERCIAL LAWsee business law.COMMERCIAL PAPERterm used broadly to describe many kinds of short-term negotiable instruments for the payment of money, such as lies, checks (q.v.), and bills of exchange(q.v.). In the United States the term also ap- ies, in a strict sense, to negotiable notes with aturities usually of from lour months to one that are issued by corporations with credit ratings in even denominations und through brokers to the public. Such are commonly referred to as prime coin- paper; their aggregate volume outstanding is an index of business activity. banking history and systems 2:700dbusiness financing operations 7:299gmoney market and banking activity 12:157bmoney supply expansion mechanisms 12:352anegotiable instruments and business law 4: 991g COMMERCIAL TRANSACTIONS, LAW OF4:987, the core of legal rules governing business dealings. The text article covers, the historical development of commercial law; general principles of contractual relationships; and modern legal practice with regard to the most common types of transaction, including the law relating to sale of goods, negotiable instruments, documents of title, letters of credit, loan of money, and security interests. REFERENCES in other text articles: business associations and commerce 3:530fcarriage of goods law 3:960bparty shipping contracts 18:670aconsumer loan interest rate regulations 5:99bconsumer protection history 5:100hEnglish contract doctrine development 11:460cGermanic customary law inadequacy 8:33bHellenistic law on sale of goods 8: insurance and valid contract conditions 9:656aIslamic law on age of legal responsibility 9: maritime contracts in carriage of goods 11:501hmedieval legal development 6:1120aprimitive law and evolution of contract 5:124bunenforceable transactions 5:126cRELATED ENTRIES in the Ready Reference and index: cavcat emptor; debtor and creditor; liability; performance; piepoudre court COMMESSOsometimes called FLORENTINE MOSAIC, a technique of fashioning pictures with thin, cut-to-shape pieces of brightly coloured, semiprecious stones, developed in Florence in the late 16th century. The stones most commonly used are agates, quartzes, chalcedonies, jaspers, granites, porphyries, petrified woods, and lapis lazuli; all of these, with the exception of lapis lazuli, are “hard stones,” or stones that fall between feldspar and diamond in hardness. Used mainly for tabletops and small wall panels, commesso pictures range from emblematic and floral subjects to landscapes, and some are executed with such laborious cure and such sensitivity to the pictorial possibilities of the colours and shadings of the stones that they rival paintings in their detailed realism. Although the first recorded instance of this work was in the late 14th century in Florence, it was under the 16th-century Medici duke Francesco I, who employed several notable Italian Mannerist painters to design and execute commesso pieces, that the art began to be produced on an extensive scale, In 1588 Francesco’s successor, Ferdinand I, founded the Opificio delle Pietre Dure (Workshop for Kurd Stone) us n permanent commesso workshop. The first group of artists employed there perfected the art of making commesso pictures in highly illusionistic perspective. The Opificio wus primarily engaged throughout the 17th century in manufacturing decorations for the family funerary chapel begun by the Medici at the church of San Lorenzo in 1605. By the beginning of the 18th century commesso work was in demand all over Europe, and Florentine craftsmen were soon employed at several European courts. The Florentine Opificio continued to operate as a state-supported institution into the 20th century, producing works of very high technical and artistic quality as late as the 1920s.COMMEWIJNEdistrict,northeastern Surinam, with its capital at Nieuw Amsterdam. Bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and drained by the Commcwijne Kreek (river), it produces coffee, rice, and sugar cane. area and population table 17:826map, Surinam 17:824 COMMINES, PHILIPPE DEsee Commynes, Philippe de. COMMINOTTOone of the Maltese Islands that is actually an uninhabited rock. 36°00’’ N, 14°19’ Malta’s location and importance 11:391d COMMISSARIATsee supply, military.COMMISSION BROKERmember of a stock ex change and a partner of a member commission brokerage firm, He executes orders for the firm’s customers and sometimes for other brokers at or near the market price. Commission brokers constitute the largest class of New York Stock Exchange members. stock exchange operations 16:450f COMMISSION DES MONUMENTS French commission established in the 19th century to restore historic monuments. Gothic restoration and educational work 19:4501 COMMISSION DES SECTEURS SAUVEGARDESFRENCH COMMISSION ESTABLISHED IN 1062 UNDER ANDRE MALRAUX TO PRESERVE HISTORIC STRUCTURES AND SITES. architecture conservation program 2:58a COMMISSION INTERNATIONALE DE I’ECLAIR-AGE (CIE), ALSO CALLED INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION ON ILLUMINATION, INTERNATIONAL BODY (FOUNDED 1900) TO PROMOTE THE STUDY OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION. COLOUR CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 13:888C                            COMMISSION OF THE PUBLIC DEBT (Egypt): .see Caisse de la Dette Publique COMMISSION ON THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE AUTHORS OF THE WAR AND ON ENFORCEMENT OF PENALTIES (1919), commission which discussed war crimes of World War I. war crimes definition and punishment 19:554g COMMISSION SYSTEMin U.S. city government, the administration of municipal affairs by an elected commission. Each commissioner serves as the head of one or more city departments. definition and organization 14:712cintroduction and basic provision 18:983hstructure and major U.S. cities 18:938cUnited States city government types 4:645h COMMITTEE OF BOTH KINGDOMSPuritan committee formed in 1644 and charged with the responsibility of the overall strategy of the English Civil War Cromwell’s rise to power 5:292h COMMITTEE OF GENERAL SECURITYin French COMITE DE SURETE GENERALE organ of the French Revolutionary government; in its capacity of directing the political police and Revolutionary justice. Founded by the National Convention in 1792, the committee administered the Terror of 1793 94. functions, election, and rivalry 7:655cRobespierre’s political antagonists l5:909f COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL LIBERATIONALSO CALLED CLN, ITALIAN POLITICAL COALITION ESTABLISHED SEPT.9, 1943. RESISTANCE MOVEMENT GROWTH 9:1170A COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY (FRANCE): SEE PUBLIC SAFETY, COMMITTEE OF.COMMITTEE OF STATE SECURITY (U.S.S.R.) SEE KGB. COMMITTEE OF THREE (1953), United Nations group set up to survey forced labour, forced labour in Russian camps exposed 16:864f COMMITTEE OF UNION AND PROGRESS (CUP) also known as SOCIETY OF UNION AND PROGRESS, Turkish ITTIHAD VE TERAKKI CEMIYETI, Ottoman secret society that staged a revolution in 1908 and subsequently became the dominant political party in the Ottoman Empire (1908-18), advocating a policy of centralization, state-directed national economy, Turkish nationalism, and secularism. Established in Paris in 1899, the Commit lee merged with the Ottoman Freedom Society, a group founded in Salonika (now Thessaloniki, Greece) in 1906 by a group of army officers and government officials. In July 1908 the Salonika group rebelled and compelled the Ottoman sultun Abdlilhamid II to restore the 1876 constitution and a bicameral parliament. In general elections the CUP won an overwhelming victory and gained control of allpolitical activity, while claiming that it was not a political party but a patriotic organization. In April 1909, taking advantage of a religious uprising (31st March Incident), the CUP eliminated the opposition groups and deposed Abdulhamid II. replacing him briefly with Mehmed V. In July 1912, however, the CUP was ousted by a group of army officers who supported the opposition Liberal Union (q.v.) until the following January, when a coup led by Enver Pasa put the cup back in power. Soon afterward it declared itself a political party, and in 1914 it brought the Ottoman Empire into World War I on the side of the Central Powers. With the Ottoman defeat in 1918, the party disbanded itself, and its leaders fled abroad. While in power, the CUP gradually replaced its policy of Ottomanism with that of Turkish nationalism; steps were taken toward the formation of a national economy ; a new system of provincial administration was introduced; a system of secular primary and secondary schools was created; religious schools and courts were brought under secular state control; and the Family Law of 1917 improved the position of women. These cup policies foreshadowed those of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, founder of the Turkish Republic (1923). Kemal Ataturk’s political career 2:255frevolutionary political program 13:789apassim to 790c COMMITTEE ON MEDICAL CRITERIA FOR Flying, regulatory committee established by the Aerospace Medical Association in 1961. guideline and restrictions publication 1:145f COMMITTEEONSPACE RESEARCH (Cospar). international organization devoted to coordination of space activities. scientific cooperation on space programs 17:378b COMMODEin dress, a wire framework worn on the hea l c. 1690- 1710 in France and England to hold in position a top knot of ribbon, starched linen, and lace. The complete head gear was known as a “fontage” or tower, Supposedly it had its beginning when a favourite of Louis XIV, whose hair had become untidy while hunting, tied it up with a garter ribbon. The admiration of the King made it a fashion with the ladies of the French and English courts, but the simple bow soon became a complex affair, tall, often fan-shaped, and requiring, the wire support of the commode and the addition of artificial curls and dangling streamers. COMMODEa piece of furniture resembling the English chest of drawers, in use in France in the late 17th century. Most commodes had a marble top, and some were fitted with a pair of doors. Andre-Charles Boulle was among the first to make commodes (see boulle work). These early forms resembled a sarcophagus and were commonly called commode-tom-beuu. Although most French cabinet furniture at the beginning of the 18th century was heavy in form, outlines were gently curved, the sides of commodes being slightly convex, or bombe (q.v), and the front serpentine. The legs were long and cabriole shaped. Marquetry and parquetry veneers or japanning (oriental-style lacquer work) covered both carcass and legs of the commode; and richly carved gilded bronze, or ormolu (q.v.) protected the vertical edges, following the curved outlines and frequently disguising the edges of the drawers. In the Louis XV period, extravagant Rococo Curves became fashionable, and surface ornament in ormolu became more flamboyant; drawer handles commonly formed part of the swirling ormolu foliage and thus lost their individual identity. The Louis XVI period brought more restrained forms. The carcass of the commode was given more rectangular lines, the legs being only slightly curved. A breakfront, or one with reet angular marquetry or parquetry panels, became common. Later, straight, tapering, reeded legs, round in section, became the fashion. The 19th century commode was even more subdued in form, lost its dccorative quality, and became a purely functional piece of furniture. The French commode was copied with variations throughout Europe, though usually with less fine results. In Venice, for example, the bombe outline was carried to extremes, and decoration was usually gaily painted and lacquered. Some of the more graceful versions of the French commode were made in England when French fashion became popular after 1740. The term was used in England for curved chests and low cupboards. English commodes, several of which were illustrated in Thomas Chippendale’s The Gentleman and Cabinetmaker’s Director (1754). were much more restrained and had little or no ormolu decoration, the term commode was first used in England to describe chests and low cupboards with serpentine fronts. Prom the late 18TH century, commode was also the term, along with night table, for a cupboard containing a chamber pot. period design and decoration 7:783h COMMODIANUS (fl. uncertain dale, between 3rd and 5th century). Christian Latin poet, perhaps of African origin. His Carmen apologeticum expounds Christian doctrine, dealing with the Creation, God’s revelation of himself to man, Antichrist and the end of the world. His Instructiones, 80 poems in two books, are all but two in acrostic form, undoubtedly because the technique was a useful mnemonic device. In the work he attacked pagan deities, criticized the Jews, and admonished Christians, l lis verse has no poetic value and is of interest chiefly for its employment of vulgar Latin idiom at a period when the Romance languages were emerging from Latin. The metre, though based on quantitative hexameters, frequently neglects quantity, and some scholars have suggested that its underlying principle may be bused atleast in part on word accent. It is not certain whether these peculiarities of verse and metre are intentional, to be attributed to Commodianus’ desire to facilitate communication with his largely ignorant audience, or are the result of his own ignorance. COMMODITY CREDIT (CCE), U.S. GOVERNMENT AGENCY AFFILIATED WITH THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RESPONSIBLE FOR STABILIZING, SUPPORTING, AND PROTECTING FARM INCOME AND PRICES, AND MAINTAINING BALANCED SUPPLIES AND ORDERLY DISTRIBUTION OF FARM COMMODITIES. price support programs in agriculture 1:318cCOMMODITYorganized market for the purchase and sale of enforceable contracts to deliver a commodity such as wheat, coffee, or cotton at some future date. The largest such exchange is the Chicago Board of Trade. The seller of a contract oil a commodity exchange does not normally intend to deliver the actual commodity, nor does the buyer intend to accept delivery; each will, at some time prior to the dale of delivery specified in the contract, cancel out his obligation by an offsettingpurchase or sale. The parlies merely wish to engage in the assumption or delegation of the risk involved in a change in price. Commodity exchanges are thus ancillary to the markets in which commodities are actually bought and sold; they complement them by providing insurance against the risk of price changes and also provide a basis for the determination of prices at which commodities are actually traded. Members arc privileged to trade on the exchange for their own account or for the account of their clients subject to the rules of the exchange. Trading is in terms of a unit of a standard contract. On the New York Colic and Sugar Exchange, for instance, there are two coffee contracts: a B contract for 32,500 pounds of Brazilian coffee and an M contract for 37,500 pounds of mild coffees, each of a designated basic grade. The settlement of contracts made between members of an exchange is effected through clearing associations affiliated with each commodity exchange. trading operations and price movements 4:994f COMMODITYTRADE, INTERNATIONAL 4:995, trade across national boundaries in raw materials, agricultural crops, and other unmanufactured materials. The text article is divided into sections deal-